Seite - 22 - in Biodiversity and Health in the Face of Climate Change

22 Interestingly, much of the evidence cited in Haluza et  al. (2014) is related to Japan’s ‘Shinrin-Yoku’ (forest-bathing) with most consistency shown for evidence of short-term restorative effects in physiological parameters associated with the car- diovascular, endocrine and immune systems. Studies covered a range of activity types, time periods and populations, but bias is a potential issue due to under- reporting of negative or inconclusive findings and a tendency towards short-term studies (Hartig et  al. 2014; Haluza et  al. 2014). There is less evidence for cumulative effects and therefore how they may translate into measurable mortality and morbid- ity outcomes (ibid.). Some of the published evidence relates to effects that are seen as a result of sim- ply being in ‘natural’ spaces (Haluza et  al. 2014). In this context, at least some of the associated mechanisms may be direct, for example physiological responses linked to feelings of well-being inspired by direct engagement with green and blue space (see also Marselle Chap. 7, this volume). Feelings of well-being may come about through impacts on the nervous system and are thus difficult to separate from aspects of psychology and mental health. Nevertheless, the identification of possi- ble direct impacts is important since it suggests that not all of the physical health benefits are associated with physical activity-related physiological responses (given that exercise results in some of the same physiological benefits wherever it is under- taken). That green and blue spaces tend to help to encourage physical exercise is of course also important. More than three quarters of 50 reviewed studies reported Fig. 2.2 Pathways for physiological outcomes associated with ‘exposure to natural environments’ (after van den Bosch and Sang 2017) S. J. Lindley et al.