Seite - 34 - in Biodiversity and Health in the Face of Climate Change

34 The balance between positive and negative influences is likely to vary geographi- cally and over time and issues of the transmission of risk must also be considered (Challinor et  al. 2018). Human factors are a key component of the systems through which health effects occur. For example, climate affects transportation networks with higher tempera- tures making the distribution of perishable goods more challenging and higher rain- fall potentially increasing the probability of contamination. Given the increasing concentration of people in urban areas, remote from areas of production, these chal- lenges become more acute. Climate can also affect the nutritional value of some produce. Picking up the example of berries from Sect. 2.2, it is known that climate factors have an influence on the concentrations of phenolics. Phenolic concentra- tions can also be affected by storage conditions and ripeness as well as species, variety, location and associated environmental interactions (Teixeira et  al. 2013; Kellogg et  al. 2010; Paredes-Lopez et  al. 2010). Thus, the potential for changes in nutritional values of crops as well as their yields under climate change is also a consideration. Diseases and changing distributions of pests and weeds may also affect livestock and fisheries both directly and indirectly (e.g. through the availabil- ity of foodstocks) with secondary impacts on human health (European Environment Agency 2017). We have much still to learn of the impact of climate change on eco- systems and biodiversity, including how the interconnections are being felt through mechanisms like the human biome. 2.5 Exploring a  Subset of  Interactions Through  an Urban Case Study The previous sections have shown the complexities  of interconnections between biodiversity, climate change and physical health. To explore the complexities fur- ther we present a case study which synthesizes evidence from some of the identified links for Manchester, UK.  The conurbation of Greater Manchester in the north of England has a population of around 2.6  million people and covers an area of around 1,280  km2. Despite being one of England’s largest city-regions, Greater Manchester has been used as a representative urban case in previous studies (Lindley et  al. 2006). The case for Greater Manchester being representative has been made due to its varied population and urban character. It is also exposed to a range of different hazards and although some parts of the city are affected by flooding  – some of them severely  – there is no single hazard which dominates the conurbation as a whole in terms of population risk, physical health or associated decision-making. Accordingly, the representativeness and body of existing research for Greater Manchester make it a good basis for a more focused examination compared with cities that are more distinctive in environmental or political terms. The case study starts from the per- spective of high temperatures and heat-waves and through that considers wider impacts and links with other environmental characteristics and processes, including S. J. Lindley et al.