Seite - 221 - in Biodiversity and Health in the Face of Climate Change

221 Grim (2001) observes that native lifeways that stress the inter-relatedness of all beings do not necessarily result in ecological balance or harmony, and that romanti- cised notions of the “ecological Indian” could disempower native actors in their environments (p. xxxiv–xxxvii). Despite these caveats, the examples provided in this section illustrate the potential of indigenous worldviews to promote biodiver- sity conservation. The deep connection with the earth and reverence for nature and spirits that inhabit the natural world that are expressed through indigenous beliefs and practices echo themes of environmental connection and relations with a tran- scendent other(s) found in spiritual well-being definitions. Thus, indigenous biodiversity conservation can be a pathway from spiritual beliefs to spiritual well-being. 10.3.1.2 World Religions and  Alternative Spiritualities Ethical prescriptions and community practices that can promote ecological conser- vation are also present in various ‘world religions’ and alternative spiritualities. Whether the divine is seen as transcendent or immanent, dualistic or monistic, the range of beliefs and practices described in this section demonstrate increasing con- cern for biodiversity and engagement in specific actions to preserve it. The Religions of the World and Ecology series from Harvard University Press illustrates the vitality of concern for ecological conservation within many ‘world religions’. The series includes volumes on Buddhism, Christianity, Confucianism, Daoism, Hinduism, Indigenous Traditions, Islam, Jainism and Judaism. Similarly, various ‘world religions’ alongside other spiritual orientations are included in sev- eral scholarly handbooks on religion and ecology (e.g. Jenkins et  al. 2017), at least one of which includes a chapter on biodiversity (Lovejoy 2017). In Hinduism, for example, natural objects such as rivers, trees, stones and animals can manifest the sacred as forms of divinity worthy of devotion and conservation. As one Hindu woman explains: “When I look into the face of the goddess on the tree, I feel a strong connection (sambandha) with this tree” (Haberman 2017, p.  40). Such an orientation can lead to environmental activism, for example, cleaning up the pol- luted Yamuna River in northern India or protecting sacred groves threatened with deforestation (Haberman 2017). Similarly, Buddhist environmentalists rely on Buddhist teachings about interdependence to support claims to oneness with nature and conservation. Joanna Macy, an eco-Buddhist activist, writes that in Buddhism the egotistical self is “replaced by wider constructs of identity and self-interest– by what you might call the ecological self or the eco-self, co-extensive with other beings and the life on our planet” (quoted in Ives 2017, p.  44). These religious per- spectives, based on modern interpretations of ancient traditions, can spur people toward conservation of biodiversity. Some Christian theologians and ethicists argue that since biodiversity is part of God’s creation, it must be conserved (Jenkins 2003, 2013; McFague 1997; O’Brien 2010; S.  Taylor 2007). They suggest that since God is present in all things, experi- ences of biodiversity are sacramental opportunities and that human-created species 10 Biodiversity and  Spiritual Well-being