Seite - 226 - in Biodiversity and Health in the Face of Climate Change

226 Using the ESS framework, De Lacy and Shackleton (2017) conducted a socio- ecological study of sacred urban greenspaces (i.e. gardens associated with places of worship) in South Africa to investigate the contribution of biodiversity (measured using ecological surveys) to worshipers’ spiritual and aesthetic experience (col- lected via questionnaires). Analysis found a positive association between woody plant basal area (an indicator of volume or the footprint of an area taken up by trunks and stems) and participants’ spiritual and aesthetic experience. The aesthetic experience was also positively associated with woody plant species richness and abundance (number of woody plants). Hunter and Brehm (2004) explore spiritual values in their qualitative study of rural residents living in proximity to a national forest in the USA previously identi- fied as a ‘hotspot’ for vertebrate biodiversity. Spiritual values were expressed in terms of biophilic moralistic values, defined as “a spiritual reverence and ethical concern for nature” (Kellert 1996, as cited in Hunter and Brehm 2004, p.  14). Interview participants described a responsibility on the part of humans to be good stewards for the environment and an inter-reliance between people and wildlife. For a few, this moral value was expressed in terms of a spiritual connection, e.g. “… yeah, I think there is certainly a spiritual connection between me and the ani- mals around me” (as quoted in Hunter and Brehm 2004, p.  21). Such statements are also illustrative of the spiritual well-being domain of connection with nature (Table  10.1). Callicott et  al. (2007) approach the integration of biodiversity and spirituality through the use of biocomplexity modelling, the simulation of coupled biodiverse environments and human systems. This modelling considers material connections (e.g. through food, building materials; a.k.a. provisioning  ESS) and psycho-spiritual connections (e.g. through religiously significant sites, ethnic identity) to the natural environment. Through a case-study analysis of biocomplex sites, the researchers operationalise the psycho-spiritual through an examination of the cultural history of the place. In their South American case study, the psycho-spiritual connectivity focuses on the symbolic meaning, religious practices and cultural identity associ- ated with the natural setting. They argue that such modelling “may reveal historic synergies and symbioses between human systems (human life ways and livelihoods) and natural systems that may be useful for future biodiversity conservation strate- gies” (Callicott et  al. 2007, p.  323). Delgado et  al. (2010) consider a biocultural approach to the management of nat- ural resources that includes sacred natural sites, biodiversity conservation, spiritual values and spiritual well-being of local indigenous peoples. Working with local community members and other stakeholders, a set of mutually agreed upon indica- tors and criteria of spiritual well-being were developed; these included teaching and revitalisation of spiritual knowledge and the extent to which sacred sites were used and considered valuable by the local community. To assess spiritual well-being over time, the approach measured the proportion of families who implement ritual prac- tices. By linking these ritual practices with measures of biodiversity conservation, the authors conclude that “human well-being and biodiversity is intimately related in sacred natural sites and imbued with spiritual values” (Delgado et  al. 2010, K. N. Irvine et al.