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231 Harvey 2001), New Zealand (Schmidt and Little 2007) and Canada (e.g. Heintzman 2012) thus representing specific environmental and socio-cultural contexts. Some exceptions are studies of recreational use of urban parks in the Netherlands (Chiesura 2004) and the UK (Irvine et  al. 2013), and several studies of gardens as spaces for leisure amongst individuals experiencing life challenges such as a health crisis or loss of a loved one in the UK (Milligan et  al. 2004), the USA (Heliker et  al. 2000; Infantino 2004/2005) and Canada (Unruh and Hutchinson 2011). Bell et  al. (2014) provide an example of the spiritual experiences associated with stargazing (Box 10.3). Few studies directly examine the specific environmental elements of the setting that might contribute to spiritual outcomes. Williams and Harvey’s (2001) questionnaire- based study of forests in Victoria, Australia is one exception; they sought to identify how different qualities of forests might influence such experi- ences. People who visit, live or work in forests associate spiritual feelings of insig- nificance and humility with forests that contain compelling features or powerful symbols of the natural environment, such as tall trees, extensive views or high waterfalls. By contrast, settings that were more open in character fostered what the authors described as a “deep flow” experience, e.g. feelings of connectedness and belonging. Box 10.3: Stargazing as a Spiritual Experience (Bell et  al. 2014) Bell et  al.’s (2014) mixed methods study explored the well-being effects of stargazing  – an intentional nature-interaction activity (Keniger et  al. 2013) or, as per Price’s (1996) typology, an observational recreation activity. Nature connectedness (Mayer and Frantz 2004) was found to be higher among indi- viduals who had been stargazing for more years and for those who reported seeing wildlife, such as birds and bat species along with other nocturnal ground-dwelling wildlife (e.g. foxes, badgers, hedgehogs), when stargazing. In response to open-ended questions, participants reported experiencing spiritual aspects of well-being, with comments reflecting the spiritual or tran- scendent aspect of stargazing. Some comments reflected a consideration of one’s place in the universe, including: “The sense of crushing smallness com- pared to the universe one feels” and “Realizing how small we are.” Others identified “the peace and the intrigue” and “the beauty” of the experience. Some participants mentioned regular occurrence of emotions such as awe and wonder whilst stargazing. One individual stated “I feel in awe of nature and the natural world… A sense of wonder at it all!” whilst another reported “It relaxes me and reminds me of how precious life is…”. Emotions of awe and wonder, peaceful feelings, and greater connectedness echo Heintzman’s (2009, 2016) description of spiritual experiences, which, though short-term, may contribute to longer-term spiritual well-being. 10 Biodiversity and  Spiritual Well-being