Seite - 456 - in Biodiversity and Health in the Face of Climate Change

456 measurements is exciting and needs operationalisation on a greater scale to provide exposure risk alerts, environmental health-service infrastructure and personalised forecasts. Another health issue derived from biodiversity-human contacts as discussed by Ruth Müller and co-authors is vector-borne diseases (VBDs), i.e. illnesses caused by parasites, viruses and bacteria transmitted by a vector, often insects, like blood sucking mosquitos. These are estimated to account for 17% of the global burden of non-communicable diseases, often affecting poorer populations living in degraded ecosystems in the Global South. In Europe, on average 77,000 people are affected by VBDs, and this figure is expected to rise, as abundance and regional distribution of these vectors are shaped by a changing climate as well as human transport. A warming climate may facilitate the spread of alien invasive species such as the Asian tiger mosquito (Aedes albopictus) and disease-transmitting ticks to Northern Europe as well as alter vector and host behaviour. Understanding and forecasting these changes is needed to inform pro-active natural resource manage- ment to prevent and halt establishment of vector populations. Notably, the diver- sity of pathogens as well as the diversity of vectors and hosts are as yet largely unknown and requires  further research. Since biodiverse environments can con- tribute to discovering natural and novel insecticides as well as medially active compounds, global conservation efforts for biodiversity hotspots are needed to maintain options for vector control and pharmaceutical development. In addition, genetic tools in vector control need to be understood and further developed whilst, possibly more importantly, the socio-ecological systems need to be considered and traditional knowledge within local communities incorporated to manage VBDs. As the authors argue, most VBDs can be prevented through vector control if managed effectively, and a transdisciplinary approach across sectors is needed for successful implementation. It is not mainly the lack of scientific expertise but a lack of capacity and capabilities for implementation of good practice that hinder effective management. Comprehensive national strategies, community engage- ment and the application of varied intervention toolboxes are needed. At a policy level the WHO Global Vector Control Response 2017–2030 provides strategic guidance to deal with VBDs, and should be incorporated in climate adaptation and conservation policies. Nadia Kabisch highlights in her review that socio-economic and socio- demographic effects are strong co-determinants of health, and confound the associa- tion of the impact of green space on health in many studies. Whilst these confounding effects will always be strong predictors, associations between green space and health vary in strength across different case studies and evidence appears strongest with respect to cardiovascular diseases and mental health. As several studies reported a moderating effect of urban green spaces on health inequalities between different socio-economic groups, this points to important avenues for green space urban plan- ning especially in deprived neighbourhoods. The perceived quality and safety of green spaces seems to play a particularly important role in determining actual use of those spaces. Appreciation of different green space qualities varies between age M. R. Marselle et al.