Seite - 57 - in Emerging Technologies for Electric and Hybrid Vehicles

Energies 2017,10, 1217 Table27.Cont. InteractionwithRES FieldofApplication Contribution SolarPVandwind turbine Smarthome • Developmentofcontrol strategyforsmarthomes withgrid-interactiveEVandrenewablesources Parking lot • Designof intelligentoptimizationframeworkfor integratingrenewablesourcesandEVs Griddistributionnetwork • PotentialanalysisofgridconnectedEVsfor balancing intermittencyof renewablesources • EmissionanalysisofEVsassociatedwith renewablegeneration • Developmentofoptimizedalgorithmto integrate EVsandrenewablesources to thegrid Microgrid • DevelopmentofV2Gcontrol formaximized renewable integration inmicrogrid 8.2. ImpactonEnvironment Oneof themain factors thatpropelled the increaseofEVs’popularity is their contribution to reduce thegreenhousegas (GHG)emissions.Conventional internal combustionengine (ICE)vehicles burnfuelsdirectlyandthusproduceharmfulgases, includingcarbondioxideandcarbonmonoxide. ThoughHEVsandPHEVshaveICengines, theiremissionsare less thantheconventionalvehicles. But therearealso theories that theelectricalenergyconsumedbytheEVscangiverise toGHGemission fromthepowerplantswhichhavetoproducemorebecauseof theextra loadaddedinformofEVs. This theorycanbe justifiedbythe fact that thepeak loadpowerplantsare likely tobe ICEtype,or canusegasor coal forpowergeneration. IfEVsaddexcess loadduringpeakhours, itwill lead to theoperationofsuchplantsandwillgiverise toCO2emission[155]. Reference [156]alsostatedthat powergenerationfromcoalandnaturalgaswillproducemoreCO2 fromEVpenetrationthanICEs. However,all thepower isnotgeneratedfromsuchresources. Therearemanyotherpowergenerating technologies thatproduce lessGHG.With thoseconsidered, theGHGproductionfrompowerplants becauseofEVpenetration is less thantheamountproducedbyequivalentpowergenerationfromICE vehicles. Thepowerplantsalsoproduceenergy inbulk, thusminimizingtheperunitemission.With renewablesources integratedproperly,whichtheEVscansupportstrongly, theemissionfromboth powergenerationandtransportationsectorcanbereduced[115]. Over the lifetime,EVscause less emissionthanconventionalvehicles. Thisparametercanbedenotedaswell-to-wheelemissionandit hasa lowervalue forEVs[157]. In [158],well-to-wheelandproductionphasesare taken intoaccount tocalculate the impactofEVsontheenvironment. ThisapproachstatedtheEVstobe the least carbon intensiveamongthevehicles.Denmarkmanagedtoreduce85%CO2emissionfromtransportationby combiningEVsandelectricpower. EVsalsoproducefar lessnoise,whichcanhighlyreducesound pollution,mostly inurbanareas. Therecyclingof thebatteries raisesseriousconcerns though,as there are feworganizationscapableof recyclingthe lithium-ionbatteries fully.However, like theprevious nickel-metalandlead-acidones, lithium-ioncellsarenotmadeofcausticchemicals,andtheir reuse canreduce ‘peak lithium’or ‘peakoil’demands[81]. 8.3. ImpactonEconomy Fromtheperspectiveof theEVowners,EVsprovide lessoperatingcostbecauseof their superior efficiency[22]; it canbeupto70%whereICEvehicleshaveefficiencies intherangeof60%to70%[159]. ThecurrenthighcostofEVsis likelytocomedownfrommassproductionandbetterenergypolicies[3] whichwill further increase theeconomicgainsof theowners.V2Galsoallowstheowners toobtaina financialbenefit fromtheirvehiclesbyprovidingservice to thegrid[160]. Thepowerserviceproviders benefit fromEVintegrationmainlyby implementingcoordinatedchargingandV2G. Itallowsthemto 57