Seite - 89 - in Emerging Technologies for Electric and Hybrid Vehicles
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Energies 2016,9, 86
theireconomiccompetitiveness. For that reason, citiesaroundtheworldareworriedaboutdesigning
sustainableyetefficientwaysofdoingfreightdeliveriesinurbanareas[15]. InEuropeandUSA,around
80%ofthepopulationlives inurbanareasalready. Sinceurbanareasusuallycontain largepopulations,
extensivecommercial establishments, andan increasingdemandofservicesandcommodities, there is
aneedto increase the frequencyofurbandeliveries,whichrequiresan intensiveuseof theexisting
infrastructure. According to theUS Federal HighwayAdministration, the total vehiclemiles of
travel increased 21% in the urban areas between 1996 and 2006. In fact, according to Feng and
Figliozzi [16], theproportionof freight vehicles crossingurbanzones also increased from4.8% to
5.2%. As discussed before, freight distribution in densly populated cities are related to negative
transportation externalities, such as congestion, pollution (both gas emissions andnoise), energy
inefficiencies, decreasing road safety, infrastructures degradation, lack of roadway capacity and
parkingspace,worsebreathingconditions, etc.AspointedoutbyRussoandComi[17],urbanfreight
vehiclesaccount forabout6%–18%of the totalurbantravel, forabout19%of theenergyuse,andfor
about21%of theCO2pollution.
Someof the typicalpollutants inurbandistrictsare the following[18]: (i)mono-nitrogenoxides,
whichareproducedbythecombustionof fossil fuelsandcontribute togeneratesmogandacidrain;
(ii) sulfuroxides; (iii) carbonmonoxide; (iv)particulatematter;and(v)volatileorganiccompounds.
All thepreviousgaseshavenegative effects onpeople’s health, asdiscussed inBernard et al. [19].
As a consequence, there is a strong impulse at international, national, and local levels tomitigate
thembyswitchingtozeroemissions technologies, theshift toEVsbeingoneof themostpromising
policies.Also, this shift canbeagoodsolutiontorelieveotherproblemsrelatedtourbandistribution.
Thus, for instance, Nüesch et al. [20] propose amethod tominimize the fuel consumption using
hybridEVswhile tracking agiven reference trajectory for both emissions and thebattery state of
charge. Similarly,Collin et al. [21]designagenericmethodologyto incorporateenvironmentaland
battery-relatedconstraints intoon-lineenergymanagement strategies fordifferent typesofhybrid
EVs, while Chen et al. [22] introduce an energymanagement approach tominimize total energy
costassociatedwith theuseofhybridEVs. Finally, in thecontextofurbantransportationnetworks,
Hwang et al. [23] propose a stochasticmodel tominimize the expected total cost of freight truck
activities,where thesecosts includetotaldelivery time,different typesofemissions,andapenalty for
lateorearlyarrival.
Urbantransportusually involvesvehiclesoperatingwith lowloading levels, thusresulting in
anon-efficientuseofoil-basedenergy.Moreover,urbandeliveryvanshavea lowaveragedriving
speed, andelectric enginesaremoreefficientat lowspeeds. Likewise, the routes covered inurban
distributionarequitesimilar fromonedaytoanother,whichcanfacilitate thedesignofstablepolicies
forbattery rechargingorbattery swapping. It is clear then that a shift froma fossil fuelfleet toan
electric-poweredfleet isnecessary inorder toreducepollutantemissions incities.AconversiontoEVs
wouldimplytheconjointdevelopmentof transportationandpowergenerationsectors,andwould
shiftGHGemissions fromconventionalvehicle tailpipes tobigelectricpowerplants.
Ontheonehand,EVsusingelectricity fromthepublicgridwillplayacritical role inreducing
GHGemissions and inmitigatingnegative transport externalities. Nevertheless, these reductions
in emissionswill be only possiblewithin a scenario of low-carbon electricity production, i.e., the
replacementof ICEVsbyEVs isonlyreasonable if theelectricitygenerationhasa lowlevelofcarbon
production.Otherwise,onepollutant technologywouldbeswappedbyanotherpollutant technology
(maybe less pollutant, but not really sustainable either). Additionally, EVs are ideal tomake the
distributionof lightproductswitha lowemissionpollutants impact incitycenters. That fact isdue to:
(i) the lackofgasreleases inEVs;and(ii) theusuallysmall sizeofEVs,whichallowsthemtoeasily
accesshighcongestedstreetswith limitedparkingspace.ManycitiesallowEVstouseparkingspaces
for free. Thus,EVsareconstrainedtoa lesserdegreebytheexistenceofcongestionor lackofparking
areas thanICEVs. This implies that thewalkingdistancescoveredbythedriversofEVsareusually
shorter than the onesperformedby ICEVsdrivers [24]. In fact, it is common to see conventional
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Emerging Technologies for Electric and Hybrid Vehicles
- Titel
- Emerging Technologies for Electric and Hybrid Vehicles
- Herausgeber
- MDPI
- Ort
- Basel
- Datum
- 2017
- Sprache
- englisch
- Lizenz
- CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
- ISBN
- 978-3-03897-191-7
- Abmessungen
- 17.0 x 24.4 cm
- Seiten
- 376
- Schlagwörter
- electric vehicle, plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), energy sources, energy management strategy, energy-storage system, charging technologies, control algorithms, battery, operating scenario, wireless power transfer (WPT)
- Kategorie
- Technik