Page - 3 - in Biodiversity and Health in the Face of Climate Change

3 thresholds can be associated with an increase in mortality of up to 12% (Gabriel and Endlicher 2011). The frequency and severity of heat waves and other weather- related events are expected to increase in Europe with a changing climate. This will have a significant impact on biodiversity and ecosystem functioning by worsening habitat conditions (EEA 2012). Non-communicable diseases (NCDs), for example, diabetes, cardiovascular dis- eases, mental disorders, cancer and chronic respiratory diseases, are a significant risk to health and well-being (WHO 2017b). NCDs are a leading cause of death globally (WHO 2017a) and account for 85% of all  deaths in Europe (WHO 2017b). These deaths are largely preventable and linked by common risk factors, such as physical inactivity, alcohol use and environmental factors (WHO 2017a). As such, population-level interventions are necessary to promote mental health and physical activity in order to prevent and control NCDs, and to reduce health-care costs. Supportive environments that facilitate healthier lifestyles and reduce exposure to stressors is one example of such an intervention. New approaches are needed to attenuate the negative effects of climate change and prevent NCDs in order to maxi- mise opportunities for improving human health and preventing biodiversity loss. Nature-based solutions (NBS) (Nesshöver et  al. 2017), such as the management of green spaces to increase benefits for people and to mitigate stressors, might be one such approach. Work on NBS demonstrates the importance of green spaces for climate change adaptation and mitigation (Kabisch et  al. 2017). Green spaces are also used as natural health clinics to promote human health and well-being (Mayer et  al. 2009; Frumkin et  al. 2017; Frumkin and Louv 2007), while at the same time providing habitats for a range of species (Niemela 1999; Goddard et  al. 2010) and aiding conservation goals. A large body of research shows that contact with green space can improve human health and well-being, through for example reducing stress, depression and negative emotions, and improving positive emotions, mental well-being, cognitive abilities and increasing physical activity (Bowler et  al. 2010b; Hartig et  al. 2014; Markevych et  al. 2017; Frumkin 2001; Irvine and Warber 2002), suggesting that nature can promote public health and prevent NCDs. Moreover, evidence suggests that positive experiences in nature contribute to feel- ings of connection to nature (Mayer et  al. 2009), which could also result in greater acceptance of nature conservation activities (Prévot et  al. 2018), and thereby pro- tection of our foundation of life on earth (Geng et  al. 2015; Zelenski et  al. 2015; Capaldi et  al. 2015). In this context, there is growing recognition of the contribution of biodiversity to climate change adaptation and human health. Street trees and green space in cities can contribute to climate change adaptation by reducing the impact of high tempera- tures, poor air quality and high water flows (Bowler et  al. 2010a, Gill et  al. 2007). Biodiversity underpins ecosystem services that are essential for human health and well-being (Cardinale et  al. 2012). Ecosystem services provided by biodiversity include the provision of food, timber and medicines as well as climate and water regulation, and cultural services such as the provision of opportunities for recreation (WHO & CBD 2015). Yet biodiversity loss can negatively influence physical health 1 Biodiversity and  Health in  the  Face of  Climate Change: Challenges, Opportunities…