Page - 124 - in Biodiversity and Health in the Face of Climate Change

124 (Dadvand et  al. 2014b). This highlights a potential role of ethnicity in the associa- tion between green spaces and foetal growth. 6.4 Brain Development The Biophilia hypothesis suggests that humans have essential evolutionary bonds to nature (Kellert and Wilson 1993; Wilson 1984). Accordingly, contact with nature, including green spaces, has been postulated to be crucial for brain development in children (Kahn 1997; Kahn and Kellert 2002). The brain develops steadily during the prenatal and early postnatal periods, which are considered to be the most vulner- able windows for environmental influences (Grandjean and Landrigan 2014). Upbringing in urban areas where children often have limited access to green spaces has been associated with a higher risk of neurodevelopmental disorders such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) (Skounti et al. 2007) and autism spectrum disorders (Williams et  al. 2006). Green spaces, in contrast, have been associated with short-term improvements in different brain functions, as well as enhanced development of these functions in the long term. Earlier studies on the potential effects of contact with green spaces on brain func- tion were mainly experimental studies evaluating short-term ‘therapeutic’ effects in ADHD children (Kuo and Taylor 2004; Schutte et  al. 2017; Taylor and Kuo 2009; Taylor et  al. 2001; van den Berg and van den Berg 2011). They mainly compared the effects of playing in indoor environments or urban settings in comparison to green spaces, and showed that the latter could improve attentional function and reduce ADHD symptoms. Later cross-sectional epidemiological studies evaluated the long-term association between green spaces and behavioural and emotional prob- lems among healthy children (Aggio et  al. 2015; Amoly et  al. 2014; Feng and Astell-Burt 2017; Markevych et  al. 2014c; Younan et  al. 2017; Zach et  al. 2016). They mainly characterised behaviour using the Strengths and Difficulties Questionnaire (SDQ), and associated nearby green spaces or time spent in them to lower risk of behavioural problems such as hyperactivity/inattention, conduct prob- lems, emotional symptoms, peer relationship problems and aggressive behaviour. One cross-sectional study reported improved self-discipline associated with better visual access to green spaces from home (Taylor et  al. 2002). A recent ecological study in 543 elementary schools in the USA reported lower prevalence of autism in schools with more green spaces (Wu and Jackson 2017). Another similar ecological study reported that more green spaces at primary schools were associated with bet- ter performance of students in math and English exams (Wu et  al. 2014). Recently, longitudinal epidemiological studies have prospectively evaluated the association between long-term contact with green spaces and cognitive development (Dadvand et  al. 2015a, 2017). They used repeated computerised tests to characterise cognitive function, and reported that more green space surrounding the residential address or at school was associated with improved cognitive functions including working memory and attention. A very recent study utilised magnetic resonance imaging of P. Dadvand et al.