Page - 195 - in Biodiversity and Health in the Face of Climate Change

195 individuals who lived in rural areas, whilst, conversely, bird species richness had the strongest positive effect on health for those who lived in urban areas. Carrus et  al. (2015) found  a high level of biodiversity was more strongly associated with well- being in urban green spaces than in peri-urban areas suggesting that higher biodi- versity is more important in urban areas for well-being. Other contextual variables, such as living near to the coast (White et  al. 2017), had no moderating effect. Table 9.3 Level of biodiversity investigated by the type of contact with biodiversity investigated in the 16 studies published after 2012 Type of contact with biodiversity Biodiversity levels Direct Indirect Unspecified Ecosystem/habitats Green spaces (Carrus et  al. 2015) Forest biotopes (Johansson et  al. 2014) Margalef Diversity Index (Duarte-Tagles et  al. 2015) Protected area designation (Saw et  al.  2015) Scania Green Score (Annerstedt van den Bosch et  al. 2015) Shannon Diversity Index (Wheeler et  al. 2015; Rantakokko et  al. 2018) Species communities Species richness Birds, plants/trees, and butterflies (Marselle et  al. 2016; Marselle et  al. 2015) Animals/plants (White et  al. 2017) Birds in the morning, and birds in the afternoon (Cox et  al. 2017) Plants, birds, mammals and reptiles/amphibians (Foo 2016) Fish/crustaceans (Cracknell et  al. 2016, 2017) Birds (Wheeler et  al. 2015) Trees and birds (Wolf et  al. 2017) Abundance a specific taxonomic group Fish/crustaceans (Cracknell et  al. 2017) Birds in the morning, and birds in the afternoon (Cox et  al. 2017) Single species Emerald ash borer (Agrilus planipennis), which is responsible for biodiversity loss of North American ash trees (Fraxinus spp.) (Jones 2017) Total 4 5 7 Note. ‘Direct’ and ‘indirect’ contact with nature categories based on Keniger et  al. (2013). Biodiversity levels are based on Botzat et  al. (2016). Data in the cells identifies the specific biodi- versity variable assessed in each study; no data in a cell means no studies investigated that biodi- versity level and type of contact with the biodiverse environment. Biodiversity variables with a slash (‘/’) are a combined variable where the investigator did not separate out the contribution of each taxon; two taxa are analysed together 9 Review of  the  Mental Health and  Well-being Benefits of  Biodiversity