Page - 228 - in Biodiversity and Health in the Face of Climate Change

228 wilderness, can provide transformative experiences of that which is totally ‘other’. He notes: Each of these recreational activities offers an experience in nature that often provides the participants with a sense of wonder, awe, wholeness, harmony, ecstasy, transcendence, and solitude. … Each can transfix and transform. Each takes place in a natural arena where the trials of the heart and the tribulations of the soul can be overcome (Price 1996, p.  415). Price suggests that “the reason for returning to nature…is to regain touch with the divine” (p.  440) and that “replenished spiritually by the experience, the participants hope to retain its joy, its serenity, … its harmony” (p.  441), elements Hawks (1994) associates with spiritual well-being. Curtin’s (2009) study of wildlife tourists examined observational recreational activities and psychological well-being. Drawing on interviews and ethnographic fieldwork of wildlife tours in  locations with high levels of species richness (Spain  – bird watching; California  – whale and bird watching), Curtin’s analysis identified feelings of wonder, awe and a sense of timelessness that emerged through an encounter with wildlife. Wonder was expressed in terms of the beauty of what was being seen (e.g. seabirds in flight), the intricacy of nature’s design (e.g. diversity of species) and the sense of being part of  – rather than separate from  – the natural world. Participants also noted a temporal shift whereby, as Curtin writes, “linear… time slips away” and one is provided with “still and motionless time in which to marvel, contemplate and philosophise” (p.  470). Participants described these moments as points during which one can transcend the self and find meaning through connection with the wildlife and the wider natural world. Although Curtin did not label these experiences as contributing to spiritual well-being, such descrip- tions are in keeping with our dimensions that make up spiritual outcomes. Mitchell’s (2016) study of national public parks in the USA illustrates how, through park design and viewpoint placements, people can experience such moments of awe, humility and wonder before scenes of natural grandeur that visi- tors label as ‘spiritual’. A former director of the US National Park Service called these parks an “investment in the physical, mental, and spiritual well-being of Americans as individuals” (quoted in Mitchell 2016, p.  34), and spiritual well-being has been identified as both a reason for and an important benefit of visiting pro- tected areas in Canada (Lemieux et  al. 2012). Given that such places can contribute to conservation of biodiversity, they are examples of how experiences of biodiver- sity can contribute to spiritual well-being. 10.3.4.2 Heintzman’s Model Connecting Nature-Based Recreation and  Spirituality Drawing together qualitative and quantitative research on nature-based recreation and spirituality, Heintzman (2000, 2002, 2009, 2016; Heintzman and Mannell 2003) has identified four elements that contribute to this relationship. These include: antecedent conditions, setting components, recreation components and spiritual outcomes (Box 10.2). The spiritual outcomes are parsed into three aspects: spiritual K. N. Irvine et al.