Page - 230 - in Biodiversity and Health in the Face of Climate Change

230 experience  – considered a short-term outcome; spiritual well-being, something that occurs over the longer term; and the use of leisure for coping with issues (e.g. job change, cancer) that can raise spiritual questions (e.g. meaning of life). Spiritual well-being is delineated in terms of Hawks’ (1994) interpretation, which distin- guishes between the internal experience and the outward manifestation of spiritual well-being (see Box 10.2). 10.3.4.3 Setting Component In terms of our interest in the biodiversity-spiritual well-being relationship, the set- ting component of Heintzman’s model is perhaps most relevant. Heintzman’s (2009) discussion of why the natural dimension of nature-based recreation might contrib- ute to spiritual-focused outcomes specifically highlights extent and fascination as relevant qualities, two characteristics of a restorative environment (e.g. Kaplan, S. 1995; see Marselle 2018). As Heintzman (2009) describes it: …nature settings are characterized by extent (i.e., natural ecosystems provide rich settings that captivate, foster exploration and connect people to a larger world). Second, nature set- tings allow for soft fascination or attention, which suggests that natural features (e.g. sun- sets, clouds, mountain vistas) can be observed effortlessly leaving opportunity for reflection on spiritual matters. (p.  78) The restorative environment features of ‘being away’ and ‘compatibility’ (Kaplan, S. 1995; see Marselle 2018) are also present in Heintzman’s model. ‘Being away’ is embedded in the setting element; for many, being in nature is a physical change in  location and a removal from everyday routine and responsibilities, which has been found to facilitate spiritual outcomes (e.g. Ellard et  al. 2009, as cited in Heintzman 2009). Compatibility  – the degree of ‘fit’ or congruence between an environment and one’s purposes, inclinations or reasons for being there  – is implicitly present in Heintzman’s (2002, 2009) discussion of the setting. He more explicitly argues that the activity itself can be compatible  – or not  – with fostering spiritual well-being. Biodiversity, e.g. richness of species, is hypothesised as something that could contribute to the fascination quality of a restorative environment (Ulrich 1983; see Marselle 2018). It could also contribute to a conceptual sense of ‘being away’, an additional dimension of this restorative environment feature (Kaplan, S. 1995). As Goodenough (1998) argues and Curtin (2009) illustrates empirically, biodiversity can inspire spiritual feelings of humility, communion, awe, wonder and inter- relatedness with nature. Goodenough suggests that: “The outpouring of biological diversity calls us to marvel at its fecundity. It also calls us to stand before its presence with deep, abiding humility” that she likens to religious reverence (1998, p.  86). The empirical research into the spiritual dimension of outdoor recreation is pri- marily qualitative and largely situated in wilderness within the USA (e.g. Fredrickson and Anderson 1999; Kaplan, R. and Kaplan 1989), Australia (e.g. Williams and K. N. Irvine et al.