Page - 232 - in Biodiversity and Health in the Face of Climate Change

232 A recent US-based study by Joye and Bolderdijk (2015) sought to experimen- tally test these effects. Using a between-subject design, participants viewed one of three slideshows online: extraordinary nature (e.g. dramatic mountains, landscapes dominated by phenomena such as sunsets, thunderstorms), mundane nature (e.g. lawns, foliage) or neutral (e.g. everyday objects such as a chair). Those who viewed the extraordinary nature images experienced greater levels of awe, fear and small- ness compared to the other two conditions. Participants in both nature conditions felt more spiritual, caring and connected to others; those who viewed extraordinary nature scenes felt more ‘other’ oriented (as measured by social values orientation). 10.3.4.4 Parallel Measurement of  Biodiversity and  Spiritual Well-Being The previous Sects. (10.3.4.1, 10.3.4.2 and 10.3.4.3) detail studies that do not explicitly incorporate measures of biodiversity. Two interdisciplinary mixed meth- ods field-based studies of urban public parks in the UK, utilising ecological surveys alongside quantitative and qualitative social science methods, provide further insight into how biodiversity might relate to spiritual well-being (Fuller et  al. 2007; Dallimer et  al. 2012). Ecological surveys assessed species richness of plants, birds and butterflies (direct measures of biodiversity) along with diversity of habitats and tree cover (proxy measures of biodiversity). Self-report questionnaires conducted with users of the same study sites during the period of ecological sampling explored motivations for park use and well-being benefits. Well-being measures included place attachment, place identity and reflection, the former two are related to place processes (Altman and Low 1992; Twigger-Ross and Uzzell 1996) and the latter, interpreted as the ability to think about things (e.g. personal matters) and gain per- spective (e.g. on life), a dimension of attention restoration theory (Kaplan, S. 1995; see Marselle 2018). Fuller et  al. (2007) reported positive associations between tree species richness, habitat diversity and both reflection and place identity; bird spe- cies richness was positively associated with attachment. Dallimer et  al. (2012) found that all aspects of well-being had positive associations with bird species rich- ness and tree cover but a negative association with plant species richness. These findings are suggestive that greater diversity could contribute to place pro- cesses and restoration. While these are not conceptually considered spiritual out- comes (see Table  10.1), they could be considered a mechanism through which spiritual well-being might be achieved. For example, given the centrality of mean- ing and purpose in definitions of spiritual well-being, having opportunities to “reflect on one’s life, on one’s priorities and possibilities, on one’s actions and one’s goals” can be considered a deeply restorative experience (Kaplan, R. and Kaplan 1989, p.  197). Indeed, as J.W.  Fisher, Francis and Johnson (2000) argue, the “per- sonal domain  – wherein one intra-relates with oneself with regards to meaning, pur- pose and values in life” (p.  135) is an important component of spiritual well-being. Irvine et  al.’s (2013) qualitative analysis of open-ended responses from Fuller et  al.’s (2007) park users, as to why they were using the park and how they felt after being there, identified numerous statements reflective of features of spiritual well- K. N. Irvine et al.