Page - 365 - in Biodiversity and Health in the Face of Climate Change

365 air, water supplies and protection against floods, coastal storms and other natural disasters (Dudley et  al. 2010; Gómez-Baggethun et  al. 2013). At the same time, rapid urbanisation is affecting the very ecosystems on which cities and urban citi- zens depend by exerting pressures on freshwater supplies and increasing pollution (Mcdonald et  al. 2008). With the dual challenges of climate change and rapid urban- isation, improving the public health of urban residents will be of particular importance. Increasing urbanisation brings its own challenges in terms of human health. Non-communicable diseases such as diabetes, cardiovascular disease, cancer and depression are now among the fastest growing health challenges around the world (WHO 2005, 2014). While many factors are involved in this increase, lifestyle fac- tors such as physical activity, diet and stress are particularly important (WHO 2014). There is also increasing evidence that lack of access to nature in cities, and associ- ated sedentary, indoor lifestyles, is linked with physical and mental health disorders including vitamin D deficiency, asthma, anxiety and depression (Gelsthorpe 2017). Better access to nature has been shown to have positive physical and mental health benefits and can even contribute to healing after surgery (Sandifer et  al. 2015; Townsend et  al. 2015, Cook et  al. Chap. 11, this volume). There is increasing evidence that biodiversity and healthy natural ecosystems, including protected areas, can help climate change adaptation by serving as a natu- ral buffer against climate-related disasters, contributing to water and food security, and playing a critical role in maintaining human health and well-being (Dudley et  al. 2010; IUCN 2016a, b; Gómez-Baggethun et  al. 2013). A healthy ecosystem is one that is sustainable  – that is, it has the ability to maintain its structure (organisa- tion) and function (vigour) over time in the face of external stress (resilience) (Costanza et  al. 1999). In this chapter, we argue that effective protection, manage- ment and restoration of protected areas and other natural ecosystems can be practi- cal, cost-effective and help to meet the interlinked goals for biodiversity, health and climate change adaptation in a rapidly-urbanising world. Identifying and under- standing the synergies between nature, health, urban development and national cli- mate change policies and programmes will be critical for delivering many of the United Nations  Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially those relating to water, health and sustainable cities. 16.2 Protected Areas: Contributing to  Healthy Societies Protected areas and other natural ecosystems can contribute positively to human health in various ways, many of which are just beginning to be understood. These can be categorised as follows: (i) by providing ecosystem benefits and services that sustain life and regulate against detrimental health effects from climate, floods, infectious diseases, etc.; (ii) as botanical sources for both traditional and modern medicines; and (iii) by providing direct benefits to physical, spiritual and mental health through time spent in nature. 16 Nature-Based Solutions and  Protected Areas to  Improve Urban Biodiversity…