Page - 390 - in Biodiversity and Health in the Face of Climate Change

390 There was a small but significant increase in senior green space users engaging in moderate-vigorous physical activity at follow-up (1.6–5.1%; p  <  0.001). There was limited evidence regarding park-based interventions that only involved physical change to the green space (2/9 studies showed a significant intervention effect). Two studies showed a positive outcome with increases in physical activity and park usage (Cohen et  al. 2009b; Veitch et  al. 2012). Cohen et  al. (2009b) investi- gated the impact of two interventions that saw improvements made to a skate park and the green space surrounding a senior centre. Results showed a significant increase in skate park use but substantially fewer users of the green space surround- ing the senior centre. There was also a significant increase in the perception of safety in both of the renovated green spaces (p  <  0.001). An Australian study by Veitch et  al. (2012) showed significant increases in the number of park users and number of people walking and being vigorously active after major park improvements (i.e. fenced leash-free area for dogs, playground, walking track, barbeque area and landscaping). Seven studies showed no significant impact on physical activity, park usage or general health for urban green space interventions involving change to the built environment only (Cohen et  al 2009a, 2012, 2014; Quigg et  al 2011; Bohn- Goldhaum et  al 2013; Peschardt and Stigsdotter 2014; Droomers et  al 2015; Gubbels et  al 2016). Cohen et  al. (2009a) showed that park use and physical activity declined in parks that underwent major improvements including new/improved gyms, picnic areas, walking paths, playgrounds, watering and landscaping. A study by Quigg et  al. (2011) investigated the impact of upgrading two community parks on children aged 5–10  years. Upgrades that involved installation of new play equipment, seat- ing, additional safety surfacing, and waste facilities produced no change in physical activity levels among children. Cohen et  al. (2012) found that park usage increased by 11% compared to control parks (not statistically significant) following the installation of Family Fitness zones (i.e. outdoor gyms) in 12 parks. The URBAN 40 study investigated the impact of changes in the quality or quan- tity of green space in different populations in 24 severely deprived neighbourhoods in the Netherlands. The intervention involved a suite of park-based and greening interventions (costing €5 million) to ameliorate problems with employment, educa- tion, housing, social cohesion and safety. The interventions involved: (i) provision of new public parks (from pocket parks up to 250 acres; n  =  9), and (ii) renovating existing parks (n  =  9). Renovations of existing parks involved: improving paths, drainage, landscaping and maintenance; planting flower bulbs in front yards; con- structing wall gardens; greening streets, and/or developing a greenway. Investments were made in green space that could be utilised by residents for recreation (‘green to be used’) and improvements in the green appearance of the neighbourhood (‘green character’). Eighteen neighbourhoods improved their parks, in half of the cases in combination with investments in the green character of the neighbourhood. Nine of these neighbourhoods invested in new public parks. The other nine neigh- R. F. Hunter et al.