Page - 391 - in Biodiversity and Health in the Face of Climate Change

391 bourhoods redeveloped and refurbished existing parks. Another six neighbourhoods improved only their green character (no parks). Repeated cross-sectional surveys from 2004 until 2011 yielded self-reported information on leisure-time walking, cycling and sports, perceived general health and mental health, of over 48,000 local residents. Results showed that the intervention sites did not show more favourable changes in physical activity and general health compared to all the different groups of control areas (Droomers et  al. 2015). In a subset of these neighbourhoods, addi- tional data were collected from the same individuals before and after the interven- tions (Gubbels et  al. 2016). Also in this study, no significant health-related improvements were associated with the interventions, with two exceptions. Objective improvements in greenery were associated with a smaller decline in ado- lescents’ leisure time cycling, and improvements in perceived greenery were related to a decrease in adults’ depressive symptoms. There was no evidence to support the provision of pocket parks (typically small green spaces with limited facilities or programming, if any) for increased usage and physical activity (Cohen et  al. 2014; Peschardt and Stigsdotter 2014). Cohen et  al. (2014) investigated the impact of the creation of three pocket parks on the number of park users and physical activity. This involved installation of playground equip- ment and benches and development of walking paths, and all areas were fenced and enclosed by lockable gates. Results showed that pocket parks were used as fre- quently or more often than playground areas in neighbourhood parks (control areas); however, they were vacant during the majority of observations. The authors concluded that pocket parks may act as catalysts for physical activity; however, additional marketing and programmes may be needed to encourage usage. Similarly, Peschardt and Stigsdotter (2014), in a dense urban area, found no significant change in number of park users following the redesign of a pocket park that increased seat- ing areas and walking trails. 17.2.3 Greenways and  Trail Interventions There was inconclusive evidence (3/6 studies showed a significant intervention effect) to support the use of new or modified trails or greenways for promoting health benefits (see Table  17.2). Fitzhugh et  al. (2010) investigated the impact of an urban greenway trail designed to enhance connectivity of pedestrian infrastructure with nearby retail establishments and schools. The study showed significant changes between the intervention and control neighbourhoods for total physical activity (p  =  0.001), walking (p  =  0.001) and cycling (p  =  0.038). A study in the USA (Clark et  al. 2014) showed significantly positive effects for a marketing campaign and addition of signage for trail use. Usage of ten urban trails (six intervention and four control trails) were monitored following a marketing campaign promoting trail use and the addition of way-finding and incremental distance signage to selected trails. 17 Environmental, Health and  Equity Effects of  Urban Green Space Interventions