Page - 394 - in Biodiversity and Health in the Face of Climate Change

394 follow-up). At 2-year follow-up individuals living nearer the intervention versus those living further away did report significant increases in walking and cycling (effect of 15.3  min per week per km closer to the intervention after adjustments for baseline variables). Proximity was also associated with a comparable increase in total physical activity (effect of 12.5  min per week per km closer to the inter- vention). Further analyses showed that the intervention did not produce reduc- tions in CO2 emissions (Brand et  al. 2014). Three studies showed no significant impact for the provision of new trails/green- ways on usage or physical activity. Evenson et  al. (2005) found no significant effect for usage and physical activity on a new 2.8-mile (approx. 4.5-km) multiuse trail in the USA.  Burbidge and Goulias (2009) found no significant effects for the construc- tion of a multiuse trail designed for both active transport and recreational use. A study by West and Shores (2011) found no significant effect on physical activity Table 17.2 (continued) Reference Study design Population Intervention Outcome Clark et  al. (2014) Southern Nevada, USA Quasi- experiment: controlled, pre-post design Trails were in lower SES neighbourhoods 6 intervention trails: after a marketing campaign promoting PA and trail use (2012), signage was added/altered including: distance markings, way- finding signs, trail maps, trail names, and icons for acceptable uses +ve: Sig. increases for both control and intervention, pre–post for trail usage per day; 31% increase for the control trails and 35% for the intervention trails (p  <  0.01); non-sig. difference between the intervention and control group (p  =  0.32) Brand et  al. (2014), Sahlqvist et  al. (2013), Bird et  al. (2014), Goodman et  al. (2014) Cardiff, Kenilworth and Southampton, United Kingdom Quasi- experimental, longitudinal design Adults living within 5  km by road of the core Connect2 projects Building or improvement of walking and cycling routes across the United Kingdom including a traffic-free bridge over Cardiff Bay; a traffic-free bridge over a busy trunk road; an informal riverside footpath turned into a boardwalk +ve: Proximity to Connect2 associated with greater use of Connect2; 32% reported using Connect2 at 1  year and 38% at 2  years.; at 2  years, those nearer the intervention sig. increased walking and cycling (15.3 mins/week/km) and total PA (12.5 mins/ week/km) MVPA Moderate-vigorous physical activity, PA physical activity, US United States, +ve positive intervention effect, −ve no intervention effect R. F. Hunter et al.