Page - 413 - in Biodiversity and Health in the Face of Climate Change

413 complex and dynamic because multiple agents from various types of networks interact with each other and their environments, and on multiple scales (Table  18.1). The health and well-being outcomes that emerge from these complex adaptive sys- tems are not entirely plannable (Alberti et  al. 2018). Urban systems (which include social, technological and ecological dimensions) provide functions (Table  18.1) that are similar but not identical to those provided by ecosystems (Gatzweiler et  al. 2016, 2018). A key difference between urban and natural ecosystems is that most goods and services in urban systems are produced by people and are a result of secondary production, while natural ecosystems consist of primary (autotroph) and secondary producers. Nevertheless, recognizing cities as complex adaptive systems that pro- vide numerous categories of functions (Table  18.1) is the basis for resilience man- agement for healthy cities in the context of climate change. Table 18.1 Functions of urban systems Function Description Supporting Benefits provided by physical space (habitat) and infrastructure for basic life support functions such as waste management, water treatment and sanitation, and energy provision (electricity). Enables the flow of energy (captured in the form of low-entropy goods) and information. They are necessary for all other functions to be produced. Markets sometimes require physical space for exchange, but market exchange can also take place in virtual spaces Provisioning Benefits derived from providing manufactured goods and knowledge, and providing infrastructure for access to water, energy, food, transportation, social interaction and market exchange to maintain the population’s health, internal structure, procedures and processes; e.g. (processed) food, (purified) drinking water, construction materials, machines, artifacts (e.g. furniture, bicycles), education and knowledge infrastructure (universities)a Regulating Benefits derived from providing rules and regulation mechanisms to keep the infrastructure running; e.g. regulating access to social space, legal systems and markets (although not exclusive to urban areas, their significance may often be higher here because of higher institutional density and economic activity in urban areas).  The means are laws, norms, cooperatives, law enforcement, disease and disaster management and emergency response systems, hospitals and health service systems, and environmental protection agencies Cultural Benefits provided for humans in cities that are created in socio-cultural spaces (again not exclusive to cities). Social space and liberties for economic and political exchange, exchange of ideas, social exchange, recreation and leisure, space for spiritual enrichment, art and cognitive development; e.g. cultural events, “Heimat” (sense of belonging), exhibitions, libraries, cultural heritage values (e.g. historical places), cultural diversity aNote: The raw materials and natural resources, like oil, gas and wood, are also used directly in cities; however, that is rather a provisioning function of natural ecosystems 18 Resilience Management for  Healthy Cities in  a  Changing Climate