Page - 454 - in Biodiversity and Health in the Face of Climate Change

454 configurations of green spaces as well as socioeconomic contexts in different cul- tural and ethnic settings. By evaluating a broad range of case studies, the authors also demonstrate how managing green spaces for biodiversity and health can additionally contribute to adapting to the effects of a changing climate (Keune et  al. Chap. 15, MacKinnon et  al. Chap. 16, this volume), both as communities and as individuals (De Young Chap. 13, this volume). The chapters lay out practical recommendations for policy and practice as well as how to integrate existing knowledge into urban planning and management (Hunter et  al. Chap. 17, Elmqvist et  al. Chap. 18, Heiland et  al. Chap. 19, this volume). Importantly, proactive planning can contribute actively to the pub- lic health agenda (Cook et  al. Chap. 11, this volume) and help to increase a city’s resilience in the face of climate change (Elmqvist et  al. Chap. 18, this volume). Managing green spaces may also alleviate health equity issues (Kabisch Chap. 5, Cook et  al. Chap. 11, this volume). In many areas we already know enough to act and to implement ‘no regret’ actions. It becomes obvious that the global challenges and goals related to biodiversity and health in a changing climate cannot be tackled by one discipline or one sector alone. Informed transdisciplinary dialogue and col- laboration is clearly required to address the pressing research questions and to implement actions. The linkages between biodiversity and health are increasingly becoming recognized in both local and regional conservation management and in international policy development (Korn et  al. Chap. 14, this volume). Fundamentally, the 2050 Vision of Biodiversity of the Convention of Biological Diversity (CBD) and the United Nations 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development depend on joint action from many sectors and the alignment of environmental and societal goals. Implementation on the ground will need to be monitored and evaluated for effec- tiveness (see Hunter et  al. Chap. 17, this volume), both for health outcomes and for synergies and trade-offs with conservation and climate policy goals. Overall, quantifying the health benefits of interventions should also be supported by economic cost-benefit analysis to assess the value and cost-effectiveness of nature-based solution (NBS) measures for health and related co-benefits. These analyses should also support scenario development to assess different future trajec- tories at regional and global levels to inform decision making in policy and practice. Here, ongoing work with the scenarios and modelling expert group of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES) should pay special attention to the effects of biodiversity scenarios for public health. Finally, coordinated governance systems need to be developed and established to foster the sustainable use and enhancement of biodiversity to promote human health for all people in a changing climate. In this concluding chapter, we synthesize the main results from the chapters and link them to current policy developments on a European and a global scale. Based on the evidence provided in this volume and drawing from the recommendations of the European Network of Heads of Nature Conservation Agencies (ENCA) derived from the European conference ‘Biodiversity and Health in the face of climate change  – Challenges, Opportunities and Evidence Gaps’ (Marselle et  al. 2018), we M. R. Marselle et al.