Page - (000195) - in Biomedical Chemistry: Current Trends and Developments

widespread the United States mainly on college campuses, reaching a life-time use as high as 30%. Data regarding the prevalence of such practice in Europe is yet scarce, but seems to be lower than in the US (Franke, 2011; Ragan, 2013). While a sporadic use of such drugs is likely to be safe, repeated exposure may lead to deleterious consequences, possibly by reshaping the neuronal circuits of the PFC, and affecting the control of goal-directed behaviors, decision making and risk-assessment (Lee, 2009). Neuromodulation methodologies employing invasive and non- invasive procedures can also be used as possible enhancers. Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is a reversible surgical procedure that implies the insertion of small electrodes in specific brain regions. DBS has been reported to improve memory functions, but simultaneous changes in personality were also reported (Glannon, 2009). Non-invasive brain stimulation is yet mostly experimental. Transcranial stimulation (electric or magnetic) has been shown to enhance several functions, such as sensorimotor skills, memory, attention, and problem solving (Nitsche, 2008). While possible benefits may last up to several months (Cohen Kadosh, 2010; Iuculano, 2014), recent evidence shows that enhancing one ability might temporarily decrease another (Iuculano, 2013). Biofeedback, or neurofeedback, combines readings of brain activity in the form of EEG, with operant conditioning methodologies. This technique is based on the specificity of EEG patterns for different emotional states or cognitive tasks. Individuals are then trained to produce desired brain states by visual and auditory feedback, modulating in real-time their neural activity (Dornhege, 2006; Muller, 2008; Ziemann, 2008). These brain-computer interfaces are increasingly used for a wide range of enhancement purposes, such as meditation training, computer usability research, improved cognitive performance, creativity and impulse control. All these tools act through modulation of neurotransmitters’ release, leading to acute and long term reshaping of the neural circuitries. References