Page - (000385) - in Biomedical Chemistry: Current Trends and Developments

of multi-dosing to reach long lasting protection (Correia-Pinto, 2013). Hence, for cancer immunotherapy, the scientific community has been developing nanoparticulate adjuvants that are able to show intrinsic immuno-adjuvanticity and also to act as vehicles for the delivery of antigens and immunotherapeutic biomolecules (Park, 2013). This strategy can provide an opportunity for simultaneous humoral and cell- mediated immunity induction, which can lead to improved therapeutic effects (Rappuoli, 2011; Wu, 2006). Nanoparticles may also assist the interaction of the delivered antigens with APCs, enhancing the antigen- based immune responses (Hamdy, 2011; Park, 2013). Moreover, co- encapsulation of anticancer drug molecules with immunostimulative biomolecules can be obtained for synergised multifunctional purposes (Roy, 2013). Accordingly, cancer nanovaccines have recently attracted a lot of interest owing to their unique properties to overcome the limitations of immuno-therapeutics, including low interaction with APCs, inherent instability of biomacromolecules and lack of cross- presentation to T lymphocytes (Hamdy, 2011; Park, 2013). The impact of nanoparticles on the maturation of DCs for cancer immunotherapy is usually evaluated by studying the expression of co- stimulatory molecules and the major histocompatibility complex (MHC) classes I and II bioreceptor molecules, the production of cytokines, and the activation of signalling pathways (Almeida, 2014; Klippstein, 2010). For example, the effects of poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles on the maturation of DCs were studied in mouse spleens (Reischl, 2009). The results showed a dose-dependent expression of co- stimulatory molecules, such as CD80, CD86, CD40, and MHC class I, as well as enhanced secretion of inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, such as tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α) and interleukin-6 (IL-6). In addition, increased activity of mitogen-activated protein kinase and nuclear factor–κB (NF-κB) signalling pathways was observed. Joshi (Joshi, 2013) have also demonstrated that the delivery of vaccine antigens with an appropriate nanoparticulate adjuvant can stimulate the immune responses against cancer, reducing tumor growth and improving the survival rate in mice. Accordingly, the authors developed an amphiphilic polyanhydride copolymer based on 1,8- bis(pcarboxyphenoxy)-3,6-dioxaoctane (CPTEG) and 1,6-bis(p-