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Energies 2016,9, 86
stations insuchawaythatminimize total costs. These total costs includestations-constructioncost,
waiting timecost, and refueling cost. Olivella-Rosell et al. [56]proposeanagent-based simulation
approachthatallowsforecastingtheEVchargingdemandinacertainurbanarea,andtheysuccessfully
test theefficiencyof theirmodel in thecityofBarcelona,Spain.
Inthespecificcaseofbatteryswappingstations,whenavehiclearrives, it requestsafullycharged
batterypallet toreplace thenearlydepletedbatteries it currentlyholds. Therequestcouldeitherbe
satisfiedbyafullychargedbatterypallet fromthestationstorage,orbyapallet that is just completing
its charging. If the request is indeedsatisfied, thevehicle in turndeposits a fullyorpartially spent
pallet. If thereare idlebatterypallet chargersat thestation, thespentbatterypallet isplacedononeof
themandits rechargingbegins,otherwise it iskept inaqueueuntilabatterypalletcharger isavailable.
If, instead, there isnofullychargedbatteryavailableat thestation, thenthevehiclecould leaveandgo
toadifferentstation.Alternatively, it couldwait forabattery to fullycharge,whichmaytakesome
time. Thevehiclecouldeventake, ifnecessary,a replacementbattery that isonlypartiallycharged
anduse thatpartially chargedbattery to travel toanotherbatteryswapstationon its route. In this
case, thevehiclewillhave tostopearlier thanplanned,andthis influences theroutesplanning,which
estimatedsomestopsat stationsandsuddenly thevehicle is forcedtoperformothernotcoveredstops.
Dependingonboth thenumberofbatterypallet chargers the stationholdsandnumberofbattery
pallets thestationkeepsonhand, thesizeandattendantcostof thestationwill change. Theavailability
ofchargedbatterypalletsatanygiventimedependsonthesizeof thestation, the inventoryofpallets,
and thedemand for chargedpallets the station is experiencing. The station incursan indirect cost
fromtheunavailabilityofchargedpalletswhenanEVarrives foranexchangebecause thedriverwill
nothavetopayforabatteryswap,andtheremaybea lossofgoodwill fromtheunservedcustomer.
Models toevaluate totaldirectand indirect costs forpossibledecisionsonstationsizingandinventory
holdingwouldbevery important indesigningthebatteryswapping infrastructure.
In the literature related to battery-swap station size, Zheng et al. [36] proposed amethod for
locatingandsizingbatteryswapstations indistributionsystems,whichare twodeterminantskeys
in the take-upofEVsasexplainedbefore. Theproblemismodeledasmaximizing thenetpresent
valueof thebatteryswapstationproject,where thebatteryswapstationmodel, loadtype,network
reinforcement,andreliabilityare taken intoconsideration.
In the case of hydrogen-basedEVs, since theprice of hydrogen exhibits an inverse feedback
interactionwith theadoptionrateof fuelcellvehiclesandcorrespondingdemandforhydrogen, this
behavior has a compounding cyclical effect [57]. Existingmodels often fall shortwith respect to
incorporatingthiseffect intocapacitydecisions. Further, thecapacitydecisiondependsonthedemand
that isunknownapriori [58].Gametheorymayberequiredtodeterminetheoptimal timingofcapacity
investment. Thus, for example, Qin et al. [59] uses an option-based approach todemonstrate the
behavior or optimal capacitydecisions consideringavarietyof factors. StrubenandSterman [60]
discussesrequirementsofsustainedadoptionofhydrogenEVs,andGnannandPlötz [61]providea
reviewof integratedmarketandinfrastructuremodels.
3.4. FleetSizeandMix
EVsare likely tobeused indeliveryfleetswithotherkindsofvehicles.Awell-studiedbranchof
theVRPliterature ispreciselyaddressingtheproblemofheterogeneousfleets indeliveryfleets [62].
Asnoticed inLebeau et al. (2015) [63],mergingtheVRPresearchonelectricvehicleswith thefleet size
andmixvehicle routingproblemis therefore relevant to comewith recommendations for logistics
decisionmakers.Oneof thefirstattempts to investigate thespecificcharacteristicsofEVsaspartof the
fleetofaVRPwasachievedbyGonçalves et al. [64]. TheyconsideredaVRPwithpickupanddelivery
usingamixedfleet thatconsistsofEVsandvehiclesusing internal-combustionengines. Theobjective
is tominimize total costs,whichconsistofvehicle relatedfixedandvariablecosts. Theyconsider time
andcapacityconstraintsandassumeatimeforrechargingtheEVs,whichwerecalculatedfromthe
totaldistancetravelledandtherangeusingonebatterycharge.Vehiclescanrechargeanywhereduring
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Emerging Technologies for Electric and Hybrid Vehicles
- Title
- Emerging Technologies for Electric and Hybrid Vehicles
- Editor
- MDPI
- Location
- Basel
- Date
- 2017
- Language
- English
- License
- CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
- ISBN
- 978-3-03897-191-7
- Size
- 17.0 x 24.4 cm
- Pages
- 376
- Keywords
- electric vehicle, plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), energy sources, energy management strategy, energy-storage system, charging technologies, control algorithms, battery, operating scenario, wireless power transfer (WPT)
- Category
- Technik