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Energies 2016,9, 86
Figure2.ClassificationofVehicleRoutingProblem(VRP)modelsaccordingto theirdegreeof realism.
6.OtherRelatedandEmergentIssues
Assomeexpertspointout, lifecyclecostanalysis isanecessarystep inorder toproperlyassess
the long-termbenefitsassociatedwithsubstitutingICEVsbyEVs. Thus,Aguirre et al. [105]performa
studytocompare the lifecycleenvironmentalcosts (energy inputsandCO2emissions)ofanICEV,a
hybridvehicle,andanEV.Accordingto their results, thehybridvehicle is themosteffective in terms
ofCO2 emissionsandalso theoneoffering the lowestnetpresentcost.However, theEVwas themost
efficient in termsof totalenvironmental impactduring its lifetime.GaoandWinfield [106] investigate
the lifetimeGHGemissionsandenergyuse fordifferent typesof fuel-efficientvehicles, showingthat
allof themimprove, inbothdimensions, thevaluesassociatedwith ICEVs. Theyalsoconclude thatall
theseadvancedvehicles requiremoreenergyforproduction thanICEVs,mainlydueto theadditional
power electronics andbattery packs. Nevertheless, the energy savings in the fuel cycle for these
advancedvehiclescompensates themarginalenergyrequiredduringthevehiclecycle (production
stage). Li etal. [107]comparethevehiclecycleenergyandgasemissionimpactsofbothICEVsandEVs
inChina.Accordingto theiranalysis,whenconsideringtheentire lifecycleEVsare thebestchoice in
termsofenergyconsumptionandgasemissions.However, theseauthorsalsoremarkthe importance
ofsolvingsomeoperationalandtechnological challenges, e.g., chargingfacilities locationandcapacity,
beforemassivelyadoptingEVsas thestandardsolution. Finally,Noori et al. [108]analyze the lifecycle
costandlifecycleenvironmentalemissionsof ICEVs,hybridelectricvehicles,andthreedifferent types
ofEVs.Accordingto their results, ICEVsare themostcosteffectivevehicle type in termsof lifecycle
cost.However, theyalsoconclude that shifting towardsEVsreduces theenvironmentaldamagecosts
whenconsidering thevehicle lifetime.At thesametime, theyalsonotice that theuseofEVshasahigh
impactonthewater footprintduetoupstreamelectricitygenerationandtothewaterconsumption
necessary forbatteryproduction.
RegardingtheuseofEVs inruralareas,Aultman-Hall et al. [109]discusssuitabilityandcharging
requirements in these environments. They conclude that, althoughhybridvehicleswill still have
substantialutility in theseareas,EVsarequicklybecominganattractivealternative for ruralmobility
demand,especially inthoseareaswithanacceptablepowersupplyandvehiclecharginginfrastructure.
Newman et al. [110] support the idea thatEVscanbeextraordinarilyuseful insub-urbanandrural
areas, especiallyasacomplement todeficientpublic transport infrastructures.Nevertheless, theyalso
notice that, quiteoften, habitantsof rural areashavedifficultiesbuyingEVsdue to their relatively
lowpurchasingpower. Wappelhorst et al. [111] recognize twoof themainobstacles impeding the
expansionofEVs: theircostandtheirdrivingrange limitations. Inorder topartiallyovercomethese
problems, theypropose theuseof intermodalconceptsandcar-sharingpractices.Aftersomeempirical
studies, theauthorsconcludethatcar-sharingofEVscouldhavethesamepositiveadoption level in
ruralareasas in theurbanones.
Interruption of power supply causes serious problems in civic life, especially during the
evacuationofstrickenareas. It impactsmedical institutions, interrupts thesupplychain,andcauses
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Emerging Technologies for Electric and Hybrid Vehicles
- Title
- Emerging Technologies for Electric and Hybrid Vehicles
- Editor
- MDPI
- Location
- Basel
- Date
- 2017
- Language
- English
- License
- CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
- ISBN
- 978-3-03897-191-7
- Size
- 17.0 x 24.4 cm
- Pages
- 376
- Keywords
- electric vehicle, plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), energy sources, energy management strategy, energy-storage system, charging technologies, control algorithms, battery, operating scenario, wireless power transfer (WPT)
- Category
- Technik