Page - 99 - in Emerging Technologies for Electric and Hybrid Vehicles

Energies 2016,9, 86 Figure2.ClassificationofVehicleRoutingProblem(VRP)modelsaccordingto theirdegreeof realism. 6.OtherRelatedandEmergentIssues Assomeexpertspointout, lifecyclecostanalysis isanecessarystep inorder toproperlyassess the long-termbenefitsassociatedwithsubstitutingICEVsbyEVs. Thus,Aguirre et al. [105]performa studytocompare the lifecycleenvironmentalcosts (energy inputsandCO2emissions)ofanICEV,a hybridvehicle,andanEV.Accordingto their results, thehybridvehicle is themosteffective in terms ofCO2 emissionsandalso theoneoffering the lowestnetpresentcost.However, theEVwas themost efficient in termsof totalenvironmental impactduring its lifetime.GaoandWinfield [106] investigate the lifetimeGHGemissionsandenergyuse fordifferent typesof fuel-efficientvehicles, showingthat allof themimprove, inbothdimensions, thevaluesassociatedwith ICEVs. Theyalsoconclude thatall theseadvancedvehicles requiremoreenergyforproduction thanICEVs,mainlydueto theadditional power electronics andbattery packs. Nevertheless, the energy savings in the fuel cycle for these advancedvehiclescompensates themarginalenergyrequiredduringthevehiclecycle (production stage). Li etal. [107]comparethevehiclecycleenergyandgasemissionimpactsofbothICEVsandEVs inChina.Accordingto theiranalysis,whenconsideringtheentire lifecycleEVsare thebestchoice in termsofenergyconsumptionandgasemissions.However, theseauthorsalsoremarkthe importance ofsolvingsomeoperationalandtechnological challenges, e.g., chargingfacilities locationandcapacity, beforemassivelyadoptingEVsas thestandardsolution. Finally,Noori et al. [108]analyze the lifecycle costandlifecycleenvironmentalemissionsof ICEVs,hybridelectricvehicles,andthreedifferent types ofEVs.Accordingto their results, ICEVsare themostcosteffectivevehicle type in termsof lifecycle cost.However, theyalsoconclude that shifting towardsEVsreduces theenvironmentaldamagecosts whenconsidering thevehicle lifetime.At thesametime, theyalsonotice that theuseofEVshasahigh impactonthewater footprintduetoupstreamelectricitygenerationandtothewaterconsumption necessary forbatteryproduction. RegardingtheuseofEVs inruralareas,Aultman-Hall et al. [109]discusssuitabilityandcharging requirements in these environments. They conclude that, althoughhybridvehicleswill still have substantialutility in theseareas,EVsarequicklybecominganattractivealternative for ruralmobility demand,especially inthoseareaswithanacceptablepowersupplyandvehiclecharginginfrastructure. Newman et al. [110] support the idea thatEVscanbeextraordinarilyuseful insub-urbanandrural areas, especiallyasacomplement todeficientpublic transport infrastructures.Nevertheless, theyalso notice that, quiteoften, habitantsof rural areashavedifficultiesbuyingEVsdue to their relatively lowpurchasingpower. Wappelhorst et al. [111] recognize twoof themainobstacles impeding the expansionofEVs: theircostandtheirdrivingrange limitations. Inorder topartiallyovercomethese problems, theypropose theuseof intermodalconceptsandcar-sharingpractices.Aftersomeempirical studies, theauthorsconcludethatcar-sharingofEVscouldhavethesamepositiveadoption level in ruralareasas in theurbanones. Interruption of power supply causes serious problems in civic life, especially during the evacuationofstrickenareas. It impactsmedical institutions, interrupts thesupplychain,andcauses 99