Page - 209 - in Freshwater Microplastics - Emerging Environmental Contaminants?

plastic pelletswhenmeasuredbynumber, themass of the plastic pellets exceeded planktonicmass six times [23].This “litter artifact” in themiddleof theoceanwas popularlycalled the“GreatPacificGarbagePatch,”whichhadasignificant impact on the public perception of the problem. The linguistic framing of the plastic pollution repelled the public by playing on the yuck factor, similar to the case of GMOs described above. The pollution was also unknown to many, making the noveltyof theproblemsignificant (driver7).Ontheotherhand, thisdescriptiondid givesomebacklashsince it createdan illusionof islandsofplasticsfloatingaround in the ocean. Since such islands do not exist in reality, some commentators have argued that the environmental problemwas exaggerated and that this could erode citizens’ trust in institutions [24]. Plastic pollutionwasnot perceivedas suchabig riskinthedecadesafter thefirst reportswerepublished.Thiscanbeexplainedusing several of the risk perception drivers (Table 1). Since plastic pollution was first reported as a phenomenon on the open ocean and not related directly to severe impacts on marine species and ecosystems, it was not perceived as a risk with “potential fordisaster”(driver4)noracontaminationthat impactedalargegroupof people (driver5).Debris in themiddleof theoceanhasnodirect link toanyhuman populations per se, which might also have affected the lack of public response (driver 5). Furthermore, oceanicpollution is abstract andnot so tangible since it is noteasilyvisible tomostpeople.Therefore, the“Giddensparadox”(driver8)might also have influenced the lack of perceived risk in these early years. Finally, there was very little information communicated to the public about the problem, for instance, from2004 to2010,microplasticswereonlymentionedafewtimes inUK newspapers,whereas the number of articles grewmarkedly in the followingyears [25]. Sincepeopleobviously cannot perceive a risk that they arenot awareof, this lack of communication is a final but very important reason for the lack of early alertness to the problem. 4 RiskPerceptionofPlasticPollutionandPoliticalActions Since the2000s Plastic pollution research declined during the 1990s, only to drastically increase after itwasverifiedduring the2000s thatplasticwasaubiquitousmarinepollutant [17]. Among several important publications, Thompson et al. [26] published a famous paper in science entitled “Lost at sea:Where is all the plastic?”which is being recognized as a major driver for the elevated scientific interest [17]. The significant increase in scientific publications on the topic was followed with increased international media attention and political measures being enforced. Reports about theplastic pollutionproblemhave thusbeenbroadcasted in interna- tional media such as Reuters [27], and political measures have been taken in different regions of the world. In 2008 Rwanda banned the use of non-biodegradable plastic bags throughout the country [28]. This ban followed a RiskPerceptionofPlastic Pollution: Importance ofStakeholder Involvement. . . 209