Page - 292 - in Freshwater Microplastics - Emerging Environmental Contaminants?

(Fig.3c).However, a returndeposit feeon foodcontainersdoesnot ensure that the container is reusedas the largeandgrowingproportionof returnablebut single-use plastic bottles in Germany illustrate [113]; therefore, further incentives are necessary. Anotherway to reduce plastics is prohibition or taxing of plastic products that canbeeasily replaced, suchasmicrobeads incosmetic anddailycareproducts and plasticbagsforgroceries.Asurveyconducted inIrelandrevealed that fees/taxeson plastic bags seem tobewell received amongcustomers [114]. Buyingfromlocal farmers’markets isanotherwayforacustomertoprocureless packaging (Fig. 3d).While farmers’marketswere replaced inmost ofEurope and NorthAmericaby large supermarket chains, theyare celebrating a comebackover the last two decades [115]. In other countries it is still normal to procure the majority of fresh foods from farmers’markets, despite the introduction of large supermarket chains. This is the case inChilewhere “Ferias libres” (neighborhood outdoor markets) supply the population with 70% of its demand for fruit and vegetables and30%of seafoodproducts [116]. Collectively, all thesestrategieshelp reduce the leakageof low-value/single-use plastics into terrestrial and aquatic environments and subsequent formation of microplastics from their degradation. Regardless of themostmodernwasteman- agement systemsavailable, leakageof single-use throwawayproducts andpackag- ing occurs. Their reduction is the most efficient mitigation effort to reduce microplastics in the environment. 9 Conclusion An environmental movement may be defined as a loose, noninstitutionalized network of organizations of varying degrees of formality, as well as individuals andgroupswithnoorganizational affiliation,whoare engaged in collective action motivatedby shared identity or concern about environmental issues [117]. In July of 2016, the American Chemistry Council published “Plastics and Sustainability: A valuation of environmental benefits, costs and opportunities for continuous improvement,” largely a comparison of life cycle analyses putting plastic in a positive light against alternativematerials (glass,metal, paper).At the same time, thePlasticPollutionPolicyProject convened18organizations focused on zerowaste initiatives to align on policy and campaigns and to create common messaging to counter industry-dominated narratives. A movement has emerged, while stakeholder positions havedug in their heels. Here we have discussed solutions to microplastics in freshwater ecosystems, which largely form in terrestrial environments from primary or secondary microplastics. We know that microplastics are global, increasingly toxic over time, and impacts to wildlife are pervasive, leading to the collective conclusion that plastic in the environment causes harm. We also know that capturing microplasticdownstream isextremelydifficult and requiresupstreamintervention. 292 M.Eriksen et al.