Seite - 247 - in Loss and Damage from Climate Change - Concepts, Methods and Policy Options

10 DisplacementandResettlement:Understanding… 247 Fig.10.6 Themain reasons formoving inKiribati 2005–2015. SourceOakeset al. (2016) seenasdesirable, suggestinga lackof choice indestination forpeople impactedby aclimate-impactedenvironment. Losses and damages suffered in the context of such climate change related dis- placementcanbe in the formofhealth, access to servicesandeducation,protection andculture (UnicefUK2017). InPacificSIDS,king tidescausefrequentfloodsand areintensifiedbysealevelriseandLaNiñayears(Linetal.2014).Therecanbevery short intervals between king tides (Lin et al. 2014)meaning that households have little time to recover andcanbe locked intoavicious cycleof recovery.Vulnerable groups are particularly at risk. Climate change related environmental degradation hasmeant that children in Pacific SIDS have been forced tomove to islandswith moreresilient infrastructureforschooling.Oftenthis involvesstayingwithextended families,whichcanplace themat riskofall formsofabuse (PRRRT2014). Voluntarymigrationtypicallymakesplaceaspeopleseekmoresecurelivelihoods less impacted by environmental hazards such as changes in rainfall, agricultural yieldsandfisheries. Insuchinstances, lossesanddamagescanbe lesssevere.TheI- Kiribati ideaof“migrationwithdignity”hasnotbeendefinedinapolicydocument, but revolves around facilitating voluntarymigration through improving education and developing international networks (Voigt-Graf andKagan 2017). In thisman- ner, it ishoped thatpeoplecanmigrate,generating remittances toenableadaptation (IOM2017a)improvetheirlivelihoods(GemenneandBlocher2017)andinsodoing reduce future lossesanddamages inducingdisplacement.However, inbothKiribati (Oakesetal.2016)andTuvalu (Milanetal.2016) internationalmigration is limited byfinancesandpermits.Intheabsenceofoptionstomoveinternationally, themajor-