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Systems, participating experts suggested five interconnected transformative changes to strengthen the science system so that it is better prepared to deal with future crises and to provide input to policy. The most critical of these would be to strengthen transdisciplinary research on multiple critical risks and system resilience. Secondly, we would need to radically increase the diffusion of scientific knowledge, both within the science system and between science and society. This implies that researchers should be able to share their findings globally with other scientists and decision makers a lot quicker and more widely than is currently the case, while being watchful of not compromising on the quality of the research. Thirdly, the capability of the science system to reorient itself in an agile way in response to emerging societal needs would need to be improved. In other words, scientists should be able to put projects on hold, in order to refocus their research efforts where they are needed most. The last two areas that should be targeted for transformative change are enhancing public understanding of and trust in science, and improved efficiency of science-policy interface mechanisms. “COVID-19 revealed quite strongly that even in developed countries where scientific literacy is quite high, there is a lack of basic understanding of how science works, specifically around the role of scientific debate and scientific disagreement. The media could play an important role in supporting efforts in this regard,” explains Elena Rovenskaya, co-leader of the IIASA-ISC Strengthening Science Systems theme. “In terms of achieving improved efficiency in science-policy interface mechanisms, we discussed options such as getting scientists more directly involved in government decision- making processes or to enhance the transparency of science advice to policy and to require that governments give full consideration to the science advice provided.” Rovenskaya points out that all five aspects are closely related and intertwined and, difficult as it may be, should all be addressed at the same time. GUARDING AGAINST HUNGER The food system consists of highly interconnected social, technical, financial, economic, and environmental subsystems. The impact of COVID-19 quickly filtered through the entire system, threatening to double the number of people exposed to acute hunger and highlighting how insufficient safety nets designed to protect the most vulnerable were in many parts of the world. Experts deliberating on the IIASA-ISC Resilient Food Systems theme point out that to ensure a more resilient and equitable global food system, we need to rethink current agricultural practices and implement multi- objective systems that better link social, economic, technological, and environmental systems to improve overall resilience and adaptability. In addition, continuous support needs to be provided to developing countries to strengthen innovation capacities, enable adoption of technologies, and advance the upscaling of sustainable land management practices that are suited to their respective sociocultural, economic, and environmental contexts. At the same time, we should be conscious of the fact that we cannot just prepare for one risk, we need to be prepared for multiple simultaneous risks in the future. Floods in one area and droughts in another that severely impact multiple food producing areas simultaneously, would for instance pose a massive risk to global food security. “For the long term, the challenge is not only how we respond to the vulnerabilities that have been revealed by the pandemic. We need to realize that we now live in a world where everything is connected; where we are confronted with dynamic problems that play out in a non-linear fashion, and where rapid action is key. Policymakers have to be more prepared for the © Adam Islaam | IIASA WE NOW LIVE IN A WORLD WHERE EVERYTHING IS CONNECTED; WHERE WE ARE CONFRONTED WITH DYNAMIC PROBLEMS THAT PLAY OUT IN A NON- LINEAR FASHION FRANK SPERLING ” 13Optionswww.iiasa.ac.at Winter 2020