Seite - 23 - in Radical Solutions and Open Science - An Open Approach to Boost Higher Education

24 C.M.Stracke moredifficult thannormallyestimatedandmaylead tomorecautiousstatementson research results (Randall&Welser, 2018). Thegeneral ideabehindOpenScience including its conceptof replication is the commonsharing,analysis,peer-reviewingandevaluationofresearchandits results. Therefore, theOpenAccess to the research, its design, its data, its results and its publications is very important for Open Science. There are many types of Open Access (OA) that can be differentiated according to their availabilities and costs (Piwowaretal.,2018):TheyrangefromLibreOA(readingandre-usageofarticles), Gratis OA (only reading of articles), Gold OA (journals with direct OA), Green OA (journals with permission of self-archiving), HybridOA (OA after paying an articleprocessingcharge),DelayedOA(OAafter embargo time),AcademicSocial Networks(onlinecommunities)toBlackOA(illegalpiratesites).Togiveresearchers (aswell as anyother interested parties such as educators and learning providers) a better overview of what they can do with the OA publications, licenses such as CreativeCommons (seeabove)weredeveloped fordifferentpurposes. Furthermore, Open badges can support the introduction of Open Science and OpenAccess as reported byKidwell et al. (2016):Psychological Sciencewas the first journal using open badges formarking articles following principles of Open Science and thenumber of articleswith opendata has increased from3%(the two yearsbeforeadoptingopenbadges)upto39%(1.5yearsafteradoptingopenbadges). However, it remains questionablewhether this increase is caused by the badges or maybeby thegeneral increaseofopenaccesspublications. More directly and evidently, Open Science andOpenAccess can benefit from public authorities andpolicydevelopers.Taxpayers, respectively, thepoliticianson behalf of themand fundingdonors are increasinglydemanding forOpenAccessof supportedandfundedresearchresultssuchastheEuropeanCommissionandnational MinistriesofEducationliketheDutchone.Inthatway,researchcouncilscanplayan important role in theestablishmentof futurepoliciesandpracticesofOpenScience (Lasthiotakis,Kretz&Sá,2015). In addition, Open Science is focusing collaborative research in different approaches: First examples of collaborative research in Open Sciences are: the HumanGenomeProjectthatwasopenforexpertorganizations,thePolymathProject thataskedforcontributions fromexpertsandsenior researchersand theGalaxyZoo that all citizens could join (Fecher&Friesike, 2014). In addition, the technological progress in distributed computing led toOpenScience examples such as theOpen ScienceGrid (Fecher&Friesike,2014). OpenScienceisalreadydiscussedandintroducedinmanydifferentdisciplinesas identifiedandhighlightedbyvanderZeeandReich(2018):Therearefirstexamples ofdisciplines in social sciences suchascriminology (Pridemore,Makel&Plucker, 2017) and sex research (Sakaluk&Graham, 2018),whereas the discussion is just startinginhumanities,see,e.g.,openscienceeducation(vanderZee&Reich,2018; Stracke, 2019), while Open Science is practiced in many disciplines of (natural and formal) sciences such as animalwelfare (Wicherts, 2017), biomedicine (Page et al., 2018), climate research (Muster, 2018), energy efficiency (Huebner et al., 2017),hardwaredevelopment (Dosemagen,Liboiron&Molloy,2017),high-energy