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Energies 2017,10, 1314
Table1.Overviewofelectricvehiclescommerciallyavailable in2016,adaptedfrom[5].
VehicleSegment Brand Model ModelYear BatteryEnergyContent
Range(kWh)
(km)
Small Smart Fortwo 2014 17,6 160
Toyota iQEV 2012 12 85
Fiat 500e 2015 24 135
Citroen C-Zero 2014 14,5 150
Peugeot iOn 2014 14,5 150
Mitsubitshi i-MiEV 2014 16 160
VW e-up! 2013 18,7 160
Chevrolet SparkEv 2015 18,4 130
Bollore Bluecar 2015 30 250
Mitsubitshi MinicabMiEV 2014 16 150
Average 18.2 153
Median 16.8 150
Medium-Large BMW i3 2014 22 190
Renault Zoe 2015 22 240
Volvo C30Electric 2015 24 145
VW e-Golf 2016 24,2 190
Nissan Leaf (2016) 2014 30 250
Honda FITEV 2012 20 130
Renault FluenceZ.E. 2015 22 185
Ford FocusEV 2015 23 162
Kia SoulElectric 2015 27 212
Mercedes B-classEl.Dr. 2015 36 230
BYD e6 2015 61,4 205
Nissan e-NV200 2015 24 170
Toyota RAV4EV 2014 41,8 182
Tesla ModelS 2015 75 480
Tesla ModelX 2015 90 489
Average 36.2 231
Median 24.2 190
2.2. State of theArt—HEV
InTable2anoverviewof the10mostEuropeansoldhybridelectricvehicles (HEV) in2016are
given [7]. The list consists solelyofhigh-endvehicles inwhich theelectrical range isquite limited
except theBMWi3. This isdueto thecurrent taxreductions forhybridvehicles inseveralEuropean
countries,whichuse theelectricpower toreducetheiraveragefuelconsumptionandemissionson
which taxesaregenerallybased. In this table theBMWi3 isalso included,whichhasahighrange
anda largebatterypacksince it isaBEVwitharangeextender. Therefore it ismorerepresentable for
theHEVcategorytouse themedianvalue togetabetter insight in thebatteryenergycontentsand
drivingrangesused in theHEVsegment. Theaveragevaluedoesnotgiveagoodrepresentationdue
to the influenceof theBMWi3andits largerangeandbatteries since it isaBEVwitharangeextender.
Thereforealso themedian isgiven. Smallbatterypacksareusedwhichcanbeseen fromtheir low
medianbatteryenergycontentof9kWhandlimitedmediandrivingrangeof41km.
Themass-adoption of BEVs andHEVs are somehow limiteddue to two reasons. Firstly the
highinitial costofHEVandBEV,mainlybecauseof thehighpurchasingcostof thebatterypack[8].
A secondproblemwith electric vehicles is range anxiety,meaning the fear of runningout of fuel.
Manyresearcheffortsareongoingto improvebothproblemsofwhichthefirstonewillbemoredeeply
discussed inSection3. In literature [9–15] the rangeanxiety is identifiedasmainlyapsychological
barriersincemostpeopledrive lesskilometersadaythantherangeofcurrentEVs. Thisproblemis
enhancedby the longcharging timeof anEVaswell as the lackof abundantlyavailable charging
stations forelectricvehicles. Therefore, increasingthebatteryenergycontent to increase its rangeto
108
Emerging Technologies for Electric and Hybrid Vehicles
- Titel
- Emerging Technologies for Electric and Hybrid Vehicles
- Herausgeber
- MDPI
- Ort
- Basel
- Datum
- 2017
- Sprache
- englisch
- Lizenz
- CC BY-NC-ND 4.0
- ISBN
- 978-3-03897-191-7
- Abmessungen
- 17.0 x 24.4 cm
- Seiten
- 376
- Schlagwörter
- electric vehicle, plug-in hybrid electric vehicle (PHEV), energy sources, energy management strategy, energy-storage system, charging technologies, control algorithms, battery, operating scenario, wireless power transfer (WPT)
- Kategorie
- Technik