Page - 108 - in Emerging Technologies for Electric and Hybrid Vehicles

Energies 2017,10, 1314 Table1.Overviewofelectricvehiclescommerciallyavailable in2016,adaptedfrom[5]. VehicleSegment Brand Model ModelYear BatteryEnergyContent Range(kWh) (km) Small Smart Fortwo 2014 17,6 160 Toyota iQEV 2012 12 85 Fiat 500e 2015 24 135 Citroen C-Zero 2014 14,5 150 Peugeot iOn 2014 14,5 150 Mitsubitshi i-MiEV 2014 16 160 VW e-up! 2013 18,7 160 Chevrolet SparkEv 2015 18,4 130 Bollore Bluecar 2015 30 250 Mitsubitshi MinicabMiEV 2014 16 150 Average 18.2 153 Median 16.8 150 Medium-Large BMW i3 2014 22 190 Renault Zoe 2015 22 240 Volvo C30Electric 2015 24 145 VW e-Golf 2016 24,2 190 Nissan Leaf (2016) 2014 30 250 Honda FITEV 2012 20 130 Renault FluenceZ.E. 2015 22 185 Ford FocusEV 2015 23 162 Kia SoulElectric 2015 27 212 Mercedes B-classEl.Dr. 2015 36 230 BYD e6 2015 61,4 205 Nissan e-NV200 2015 24 170 Toyota RAV4EV 2014 41,8 182 Tesla ModelS 2015 75 480 Tesla ModelX 2015 90 489 Average 36.2 231 Median 24.2 190 2.2. State of theArt—HEV InTable2anoverviewof the10mostEuropeansoldhybridelectricvehicles (HEV) in2016are given [7]. The list consists solelyofhigh-endvehicles inwhich theelectrical range isquite limited except theBMWi3. This isdueto thecurrent taxreductions forhybridvehicles inseveralEuropean countries,whichuse theelectricpower toreducetheiraveragefuelconsumptionandemissionson which taxesaregenerallybased. In this table theBMWi3 isalso included,whichhasahighrange anda largebatterypacksince it isaBEVwitharangeextender. Therefore it ismorerepresentable for theHEVcategorytouse themedianvalue togetabetter insight in thebatteryenergycontentsand drivingrangesused in theHEVsegment. Theaveragevaluedoesnotgiveagoodrepresentationdue to the influenceof theBMWi3andits largerangeandbatteries since it isaBEVwitharangeextender. Thereforealso themedian isgiven. Smallbatterypacksareusedwhichcanbeseen fromtheir low medianbatteryenergycontentof9kWhandlimitedmediandrivingrangeof41km. Themass-adoption of BEVs andHEVs are somehow limiteddue to two reasons. Firstly the highinitial costofHEVandBEV,mainlybecauseof thehighpurchasingcostof thebatterypack[8]. A secondproblemwith electric vehicles is range anxiety,meaning the fear of runningout of fuel. Manyresearcheffortsareongoingto improvebothproblemsofwhichthefirstonewillbemoredeeply discussed inSection3. In literature [9–15] the rangeanxiety is identifiedasmainlyapsychological barriersincemostpeopledrive lesskilometersadaythantherangeofcurrentEVs. Thisproblemis enhancedby the longcharging timeof anEVaswell as the lackof abundantlyavailable charging stations forelectricvehicles. Therefore, increasingthebatteryenergycontent to increase its rangeto 108