Page - 50 - in Loss and Damage from Climate Change - Concepts, Methods and Policy Options

50 I.Wallimann-Helmeret al. but also climate impacts brought about bynatural climatevariability andextremes. However, a large amount of the responsibilities involved by these considerations doesnotconcernnaturalclimatevariabilitybutanthropogenicclimatechange.Most responsibilities captured in a distributive frameworkwould also directly apply in a compensatory frameworkaswell. Thecategorisationofappropriatemeasures to respond todifferentkindsofL&D significantly depends on whether the distinction between adaptation and L&D is drawnusinga“beyondadaptation”ora“risk tolerance”approach.Whileaccording to the “risk tolerance” approach, the appropriateness ofmeasures does depend on how those potentially affected assess different kinds of risk forL&D, the “beyond adaptation” approach can do sowithout involving them. Focusing on the “beyond adaptation”approachfornow,therelevantclimateimpactsconcernL&Dthatcannot and also in some caseswill not be avoided. L&D that cannot be avoidedmust be consideredundeservedharm to the extent that those facingclimate impacts didnot contributetotheiroccurrence.L&Dthatwillnotbeavoidedisundeservedharmtothe degree that it canbe tracedback toadaptationconstraints that arenot self-inflicted. Inbothcases, redistributiveresponseswillhave todifferdependingonwhether they are designed to dealwith replaceable or non-replaceable values, valueswhich can benon-economic/non-market-basedoreconomic/market-basedL&D. In the case of economic/market-basedL&D,measureswill have to eitherman- age/transfer financial risks or to provide adequate monetary/financial redress for L&D. However, in the non-economic case, novel approaches for ends-displacing have to be identified (Wallimann-Helmer 2015).Many such assets (encompassing material goods and non-material services) fall into the category of non-economic values, which have entered the L&D discourse as the concept of non-economic loss and damage or, after COP21 in Paris, non-economic losses (NELD; see also chapter by Serdeczny 2018). Commonly cited examples ofNELD include loss of life,humanhealth, culturalheritage, ecosystemservicesand indigenousknowledge (e.g.Fankhauseretal.2014;MorrisseyandOliver-Smith2013).NELDcanoccuras direct and indirect consequences of climate change, includingnegative side effects of adaptation (Serdeczny et al. 2016). They share the criterion that they are not commonly traded in themarket.8 Non-economic L&D can be replaceable or non-replaceable. Non-replaceable, non-economicL&Dorsimply“losses”mightbeperceivedaslossesof irreplaceable ends by those affected. In otherwords, the assets lost in case of this kind ofL&D mightbeperceivedasends in themselves.FollowingGoodin (1983), characteristics for regardingassets as irreplaceable are typically tied to (1)personal integrity, both bodily and mentally; (2) history; and (3) variety. Many assets typically listed as NELDcorrespondtothesecharacteristics.Lossofcultural identity,senseofplaceor indigenousknowledge, forexample,are inextricably tiedtoacommunity´s integrity (Bell2004;Heyward2014;Zellentin2010,2015).Afishingcommunityhaving lost its traditionalfishinggroundswillneverbe thesameagainbecause it lacksacentral 8For this reason,“non-market losses”mightbeamoreadequatedescriptionof such losses,but the termwasnot adopted in thepolicyprocess.