Page - 99 - in Loss and Damage from Climate Change - Concepts, Methods and Policy Options

4 TheRiskandPolicySpace forLossandDamage… 99 TransformativeMeasures With sea level rise alone threatening to displace 72–187million people by 2100 (Nicholls et al. 2011), transformative measures are increasingly needed, such as offeringalternative livelihoods (e.g., switching fromsmallholder farming incoastal areas toservices incities)andassistingwithvoluntarymigration,ascomparedwith curativesupport for forcedmigration,whichwediscussbelow(sealsoMechlerand Schinko2016).Hinoetal.(2017)findthatmanagedretreat—“thestrategicrelocation of structures or abandonment of land”—is apotentially important transformational optionwhen limits to structural protectionor other adaptationmeasures tomanage climate-related risks are reached. It is important to note that even though consid- ered transformational,managed retreat is confrontedby its ownsetof case-specific complexities andchallenges,whetherpolitical, social, or legal (Hinoet al. 2017). CurativeMeasures Thespaceforcurativemeasuresismuchlessclear,andhasnotseenalotofattention owing to the fact that it overlaps largely with demands for compensation, which havebeenruledout fromtheParisagreement, andbecauseofexisting limitations in thecausalattributionof lossesanddamages fromslow-onsetprocessesandsudden- onset extremeevents to anthropogenic climate change.Themost advanced ideas in the context of curativemeasures have been articulatedwith regard to support for involuntaryclimate-induceddisplacementandforcedmigration.Aclimatedisplace- mentfacility isbeingdiscussedunder theWIMandproposalsforapproachestodeal with climate-induceddisplacement havebeenmade, such as theNansenPrinciples onClimateChangeandDisplacement(NansenConference2011),andthePeninsula Principles onClimateDisplacementWithinStates (Displacement Solutions 2015). Yet, concrete ideas foroperationalisationare largely lacking. Forthecontesteddiscoursearoundinternationalcompensationforclimate-related impactsexacerbatedbyclimatechange,only fewconcreteoptionshavebeenputon thetablesofar.SprinzandBünau(2013),forexample,findthatnoconvincingmech- anism has yet been found to compensate for climate-related impacts. The authors present a conceptual outline for a voluntary, internationally organized compensa- tion fundandhighlight theneed for specialized, independent climate courts.At the nationallevel,however, theestablishmentofnationalmechanismstoaddressclimate induced lossesanddamages isbeingdiscussed,e.g. forBangladesh.Thechapterby Haque et al. (2018) suggests tomakeuse of a reserve fundof approximatelyUSD