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7 LegalResponses toClimateChange… 189
dencesuggestedthat theymayhaveaseriousimpactontheclimatesystem.It isalso
unclear towhatextentastatemusthavebeenabletoforeseethespecificdamagethat
mightoccur.Very fewcases involving indeterminatedamagehavebeendecidedby
international courts and tribunals. In theNaulilaa case, anArbitral Panel held that
Germanyshouldhaveanticipated that itsattackonsomePortuguesecolonieswould
likely expose Portugal to further turmoil in an unstable colonial context, although
Germanycouldnothaveforeseen thenatureandextentof the turmoil thatunfolded.
On thisbasis, thePanel condemnedGermany to thepaymentofan“equitableaddi-
tional compensation”establishedexaequoetbono (Responsabilitéde l’Allemagne
à raison des dommages causés dans les colonies portugaises du sud de l’Afrique:
1032-3).
Another areaof uncertainty existswith regards to the stringencyof theduedili-
gence obligation of states under the no-harmprinciple. The International Court of
Justiceheldthatinordertofulfilitsobligationtoexerciseduediligenceinpreventing
significanttransboundaryenvironmentalharm,astatemustcarryoutanenvironmen-
tal impact assessmentwhen there is a risk of such harmand, if the risk of signifi-
cant transboundaryharmisconfirmed,notifyandconsultwithanystatespotentially
affected (see e.g.CertainActivities andConstruction of aRoad, paras. 104, 168).
Wherea statehasacted induediligence toprevent significant transboundaryharm,
itcannotbemaderesponsibleforharmthatoccursnonetheless, inwhichcaseastate
has to prevent further damages.This, however, does not result in a right for a state
toveto anactivity conducted in another state.Notably, in relation to environmental
matters, the ICJ has often put emphasis on procedure, including the obligation to
conduct anenvironmental impact assessment, rather thansubstantiveobligations to
refrain fromacertainconduct.However, it is reasonable toassumethata statemust
ultimately refrain fromcertainactivities if that is theonlywaytoprevent significant
harm.Nevertheless, thequestionoftheactualcontentoftheno-harmrule,especially
in thecontextofclimatechangewhereproceduralprocessessuchasconsultingwith
allpotentiallyaffectedstates isoftenunhelpful,will remaindifficult tobeanswered.
Statescertainlyarenotunderanobligationtostopallgreenhousegasemissionsat
once (seee.g.Voigt2015:162).Thescopeof theirduediligenceobligationdepends
on their capacity.Theobligationof all states under theno-harmprinciple is oneof
employing all their best efforts to limit and reduce greenhouse gas emissions from
activitieswithin their jurisdiction inorder toprevent andminimise injuriouseffects
onotherstates. Inanyevent, thequestionwhetherastatehasfulfilled itsobligations
of duediligencemust be assessed in the light of the specific circumstances and the
normsof customary international lawemerging from the general practice of states
accepted as law (see e.g.CertainActivities carriedout byNicaragua in theBorder
Area,SeparateOpinionofJudgeDonoghue,para.10).Especially,theextenttowhich
effortsofeconomicgrowthshapetheunderstandingofduediligenceremainsunclear
andshouldbe further researchedwithin theconceptof sustainabledevelopment.
Thus, there remainmanydifficulties in defining themodalities of applicationof
theno-harmprinciple in relation toclimatechange.Someauthors suchasVerheyen
(2005:146)conclude that thevaguenessof thecustomaryno-harmruleprovides for
spacefor interpretation.Certainly,onlyanauthoritative interpretationbyaninterna-
Loss and Damage from Climate Change
Concepts, Methods and Policy Options
- Title
- Loss and Damage from Climate Change
- Subtitle
- Concepts, Methods and Policy Options
- Authors
- Reinhard Mechler
- Laurens M. Bouwer
- Thomas Schinko
- Swenja Surminski
- JoAnne Linnerooth-Bayer
- Publisher
- Springer Open
- Date
- 2019
- Language
- English
- License
- CC BY 4.0
- ISBN
- 978-3-319-72026-5
- Size
- 16.0 x 24.0 cm
- Pages
- 580
- Keywords
- Environment, Climate change, Environmental law, Environmental policy, Risk management
- Categories
- International
- Naturwissenschaften Umwelt und Klima