Page - 225 - in Loss and Damage from Climate Change - Concepts, Methods and Policy Options

9 The ImpactsofClimateChangeonEcosystemServices… 225 9.2 ConceptualFrameworkforUnderstanding theRole ofEcosystemServices Theworking definitionwe use in this chapter refers to losses and damages as the adverse effects of climate-related stressors that cannot beor havenot beenavoided throughmitigation or managed through adaptation efforts (adapted fromVan der Geest andWarner 2015). Following from this definition is the notion that there is a conceptual difference between climate impacts and losses and damages.Despite its negative connotation, the concept of losses and damages gives central stage to the role ofmitigation and adaptation and the opportunities that exist for avoiding harm,asillustratedinFig.9.1.However, toomanyopportunities tomitigateoradapt aremissedbecauseofadaptationconstraints, suchasduetoa lackinunderstanding, deficitsinlong-termcommitmentandmotivation,andinadequatefinancialresources (Ayeb-Karlssonet al. 2016).Lossesanddamages result fromthese failures. Thepurposeofthisframeworkistoillustratethecentralfocusandstorylineinthis chapter. It doesnot elaborateonall elementsand relationsof thecomplex realityof climatechange, impacts, andadaptation.Startingat the topof thediagram,climatic stressors affect human systems and natural systems. Impacts on human systems can be direct, or indirect through damage to natural systems and the ecosystem services they provide to society.Whenhuman systems are affected—be it directly or indirectly—adaptationoptionsmayexist. Ifadaptationmeasuresareadoptedand successful, there are no losses and damages. If there are no adaptation options at all,whenadaptation limitshavebeensurpassed, then lossesanddamages tohuman systems is inevitable. If there are possibilities to adapt, but adaptation action does notmaterialiseor is not efficient becauseof adaptationconstraints, thenactorswill also incur losses and damages. Often, successful adaptation is possible in theory, but doesn’t happen in practice because of adaptation constraints, such as lack of knowledge, skills, and resources (chapterbySchinkoet al. this2018). Fig.9.1 Conceptual framework forunderstanding the roleofecosystemservices