Page - 248 - in Loss and Damage from Climate Change - Concepts, Methods and Policy Options

248 A.Heslinet al. ityof internalmovements in thesecountries are to thecapital cities, contributing to overcrowdingandthreatening theattainmentof theSustainableDevelopmentGoals and other development targets, especially those related to sanitation (Locke 2009; ADB2014;Oakesetal.2016).Suchurbanisationmaythereforebetermedmaladap- tiveasitcanincreasebothvulnerabilityandexposuretohazards(deSherbinin2013). Planned relocation inSIDS takes placewhen the state or other authority organises there-settlementofcommunitiesoutofharm’sway,oftenbecauseofencroachment by theocean (Charanet al. 2017). Stratford et al. (2013) explainhow theTuvaluan word“Fenua”isusefulfordescribingtheconceptofplaceforcommunitiesinPacific SIDS: Asetofcustomarypracticesandterritorialmarkers,fenuacapturesthewaysinwhichPacific community identity is usually linked to part of an island—such as a valley or bay—and explains thebiographical locationof identity inplace.Fenuaisa termthat indistinguishably bundles together community/people/places. (Stratfordet al. 2013:69) Fenua therefore explains how culture and life itself is often inextricable from the land, island or part of the island of a people and goes someway to explain- ing the complexity inherent in relocations. Throughout the 20th century various relocations took place within the Pacific region, many of which were unsuccess- ful for not considering livelihoods or cultural differences (Connell 2012) and even possibly contributing todeaths as peoplewere exposed tonewenvironmental risks (Donner2015).Unsurprisingly,proposedrelocationshavebeenrejectedbythemov- ingcommunity(TabucanonandOpeskin2011).Somepeoplearereticent tomoveas potentialmigrants feel that theywill lose a link to their past and their very cultural identity (Mortreaux andBarnettt 2009).As a result,moving fromhome can bring feelings of grief and anxiety (Doherty andClayton 2011) and peoplemay stay in objectively riskyareas (Oakesetal.2016).Somerecent relocationshavebeenmore successful where processes are participatory and consideration is given to culture and livelihoods (Tabucanon2012).Guidelinesofgoodpracticehavebeenproduced to improve the experiences of those who relocate whichmay contribute to better results for both relocating and host communities (Brookings andUNHCR2015), therebyminimising lossesanddamages. 10.4.2 CyclonicStorms Cyclonicstormsaffecttropicalandsubtropicalregions,intheAtlantic,Caribbeanand North-EastPacificashurricanesandinNorth-WestPacificastyphoonsandtheSouth Pacific and IndianOcean as cyclones. It is impossible to link a particular storm to climatechange,andgloballywithincreasedtemperatures,lessstormscouldformdue tochanges inwindshear(VecchiandSoden2007).Nonethelessclimatechangewill likelyresult inhigherriskfromcyclonesthroughincreasedaverageseatemperatures causingmore intenseandwetter stormsandsea-level risemagnifying the impactof stormsurges—themainkiller incyclones (IPCC2012).Theseclimaticchangesare