Page - 249 - in Loss and Damage from Climate Change - Concepts, Methods and Policy Options

10 DisplacementandResettlement:Understanding… 249 occurring at the same timeas economic anddemographic changes,which result in larger,more vulnerable populations living inmore exposed areas (Hugo2011).As aresult,globallymillionsofpeopleareaffectedeachyear,with12.9millionpeople displaced by storms in 2016 (IDMC2017).Whether humanmobility related to a cyclone isbeforeorafter theevent, the lossesanddamagescanbeextensive. Poorercountriesare typicallymoreexposed tocyclonic stormsdue to their loca- tions in tropical regionsandmorevulnerable to their impactsdue topoverty, liveli- hoods dependent on natural resources and low levels of education and healthcare (Blaikie et al. 2014). Bangladesh is low-lying and deltaicmeaning that each year millionsofvulnerablepeopleare living inareasexposed tocyclonesandfloods.As such, according to theWorldRisk Index, in 2016Bangladeshwas the 5thmost at risk country in theworld (Garschagenet al. 2016).AlthoughBangladeshhas early warning systems, these donot always grant sufficient time for people to leave in a mannertominimiselossesanddamages.Moreover,somepeoplemaystaytoprotect their livelihoods (Ayeb-Karlssonet al. 2016).Therearealsoculturalbarrierswhich may contribute to non-evacuation. Some people may be fatalistic about cyclones andconceptualiseevacuationasagainstAllah’swill (Haque1995).Unaccompanied womenmightnotgoto thecycloneshelter,as itcanbeculturally taboo(Paul2014). In cyclone shelters, and on the journey to them,women and children are at risk of disease through insanitaryconditionsandmayevencause themselvesharmthrough reluctance togo to the toilet inpublic (UnicefUK2017). AfterrepeateddisplacementsBangladeshismaymoveeitherseasonallyorperma- nently(UnicefUK2017),makingDhakaoneoffastestgrowingcityintheworldwith residentssubject tolossesanddamages.Almosthalf thepopulationofDhakalivesin slumswhereapproximatelya thirdhavenoaccess to sanitation (WorldBank2015) and are exposed to communicable disease (Banu et al. 2013). Children in Dhaka presented a significantly higher number of disability-adjusted life years (DALYs) thanchildrenwhohadnotbeendisplaced(Mollaetal.2014).Seasonalorpermanent migration to a city can bring newor increased risks related toworking conditions (Ayeb-Karlssonet al. 2016) andchildrencanmissoutonschool if theyareobliged tofindwork (UnicefUK2017). Rich countries are not immune to losses and damages associatedwithmobility related to cyclonic storms. The USA is frequently impacted by hurricanes, with 875,000 people displaced byHurricaneMatthew in 2016 (IDMC2017). Bymid- October, the2017Atlantichurricaneseasonhadproduced15storms,10hurricanes and5majorhurricanes,whilethemonthofSeptember2017wasthesinglemostactive month forAtlantic storms on record (TheWeatherChannel 2017). Projections for theNorthAtlanticshowa45%increaseinthenumberofmajorhurricanes(category 3or above) in theperiod2016–2035 relative to1986-2005andan11%increase in related rainfall (Knutsonetal.2010).Hurricanes IreneandSandy in2011and2012 respectivelymayprovideevidenceofashiftinthehurricanebelt(IPCC2012),which could have implications for a population lacking the experience and infrastructure tocopewithhurricanes (Cutter et al. 2007). The poorest and ethnicminority communities are typically those which suffer themost severe losses and damages through hurricane displacement. The natural