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320 L.Schäfer et al.
Box13.1Barriersand limits toadaptation throughthe lensof riskpreferences.
Assuming that risk tolerance is socially constructed,Klinke andRenn (2002) suggest
that actors evaluate risks based on one of three categories according to which they
decide if the risks need to bemanaged or not: acceptable, tolerable, and intolerable.
Acceptable risks are low-complex,well understood risks that are deemed so low that
no additional efforts for risk reduction are justified (ibid). Tolerable risks relate to
“activities seen as worth pursuing for their benefit” (Dow et al. 2013a) but where
additional efforts to risk reduction are required to keep riskwithin reasonable levels.
Dowet al. (2013a) describehow the scopeof risks that fallwithin this area is heavily
influencedbyadaptationopportunities andconstrains and therefore the categorisation
ofrisksvariesspatially,jurisdictionally,andtemporally.Constraintsmaylimittherange
of available adaptation options creating the potential for residual damages for actors,
species,orecosystems.Withinthetolerableriskspace, theriskofresidualdamagemay
beviewedas anacceptableor tolerable trade-off under somecircumstances (deBruin
etal.2009). Intolerable risksgobeyondsociallynegotiatednormsandvaluesalthough
adaptation actionhasbeen taken (Dowet al. 2013a).At this stage, adaptationoptions
thatarepracticaloraffordabletokeepvaluedsocialobjectivesorgoodswithinthenorm
arenolongeravailable.Theserisksrepresent threats tocoresocialobjectivesregarding
health,welfare, security, or sustainability (KlinkeandRenn2002;Dowetal. 2013a).
Emerging literatureunderpinningChaps.16,17, and19of the IPCC5thAssess-
mentreportpoint towardslimits intheabilityofsystemstoadapt toclimatestressors
(Dowetal.2013a,b;Warneretal.2013;Adgeretal.2009).Adaptation limits—for
example“softlimits”relatedtoinstitutionsandplanningprocesses,and“hardlimits”
relating to physical characteristics of a system-constitute a point atwhich existing
adaptationoptionscanno longerprotect theobjectivesandneedsofactors andsys-
tems against intolerable risks (Adger et al. 2009; see alsoMechler and Schinko
2016; introduction byMechler et al. 2018 and chapter by Schinko et al. 2018 in
this book).At the limit between tolerable and intolerable risk, the riskmust either
beaccepted, theobjective itselfmustbeabandoned,oradaptationmustbe transfor-
mative to avoid intolerable risk (Dowet al. 2013a). Figure13.1depicts acceptable,
tolerableand intolerable risks, separatedby limitsofacceptable riskandadaptation
limits. The turning space before an adaptation limit is reached, can be described
as an adaptation frontier. Preston et al. (2014) define it as the “domain between a
socio-ecological system’ssafeoperatingspaceand itsunsafeoperatingspace”.The
adaptationfrontierisadomainwherefeasibleandaffordableadaptationactionisstill
available andhas thepotential to secureobjectives andneedsof actors andsystems
(ibid.)However, the frontier ischaracterisedbyuncertainty if theavailableoption is
usedinanefficientandtimelymannerwhichisneededtostayawayfromadaptation
limits (Dowetal. 2013a).
According to Preston et al. (2014) and underpinning literature (Mechler and
Schinko 2016; chapter by Schinko et al. 2018 in this book) adaptation can offer
two typesofbenefits to systemson the frontier:On theonehand, reducing thevul-
nerabilityof systems tomove themawayfromtheedgeof the frontier.On theother
hand, enhancing resilience, enabling systems to persist despite the continuedpres-
Loss and Damage from Climate Change
Concepts, Methods and Policy Options
- Title
- Loss and Damage from Climate Change
- Subtitle
- Concepts, Methods and Policy Options
- Authors
- Reinhard Mechler
- Laurens M. Bouwer
- Thomas Schinko
- Swenja Surminski
- JoAnne Linnerooth-Bayer
- Publisher
- Springer Open
- Date
- 2019
- Language
- English
- License
- CC BY 4.0
- ISBN
- 978-3-319-72026-5
- Size
- 16.0 x 24.0 cm
- Pages
- 580
- Keywords
- Environment, Climate change, Environmental law, Environmental policy, Risk management
- Categories
- International
- Naturwissenschaften Umwelt und Klima