Page - 370 - in Loss and Damage from Climate Change - Concepts, Methods and Policy Options

370 J.HandmerandJ.Nalau Intolerable Tolerable Acceptable Activities aimed at ‘holding the line’, enabling livelihoods to continue, while curative, reactive efforts are required to support the additional cost attributable to climate change Baseline Residual Risk Whatever measures have been implemented regarding current risks curative part becomes involuntary, forced migration Voluntary and Involuntary 2 C 2080-2100 Present Near term 2030-2040 4 C 2080-2100 Adaptation & DRR Curative L&D Risk space Options space Activities aimed at ‘holding the line’, enabling livelihoods to continue, while curative, reactive efforts are required to support the additional cost attributable to climate change Fig.15.2 Visualisation of risk and options spaces for the SWPacific.Drawing onMechler and Schinko (2016) servicessuchashealthandeducation.Naturalhazardscanbethefinal triggerfor the relocationprocess for communities already suffering fromenvironmental degrada- tionorlackofaccesstoservices,whothendecidetomove(Connell2011).Commonly identified additional push factors formigration for example inMicronesia include earnings at home, potential earnings abroad, and the costs ofmigration…poverty and hardship; unemployment; lowwages; high fertility; poor health and education services; conflict, insecurity and violence; governance issues; human rights abuse; andpersecutionanddiscrimination (Pacific InstituteofPublicPolicy2010,p.3). Much has beenwritten on relocation and climatemigrants and refugees in the Pacific context (Barnett andO’Neil 2012; Campbell et al. 2005;McAdam2012), howevermuch of this discussion has not necessarily fed into the L&Dagenda or to research and policy on adaptation limits (Barnett et al. 2015; Nalau and Leal Filho 2018). The concept of adaptation constraints in the Pacific context relates to factors, which currently impede progress in implementing adaptation (Klein et al. 2014).Suchconstraintscouldinprinciplebeovercomeby,forexample,strengthening institutional cooperation andcloser alignment of relevant policies and frameworks, suchas integratingclimateadaptationanddisaster riskreduction(Nalauetal.2016) orincreasingtheavailabilityandcapacitytoaccessrelevantinformationfordecision- making (Nalauet al. 2017a).