Page - 372 - in Loss and Damage from Climate Change - Concepts, Methods and Policy Options

372 J.HandmerandJ.Nalau potentially transform their lives.However, some locations are alreadyexperiencing risks generally assumed not to be a problemuntil 2030–2040. These locations are facingtheprospectof forcedrelocation,but there isstill spaceforvoluntaryactions, especially in termsofhowrelocationproceeds. By2080–2100,assuminga2-degreeworld,however, theoptionsspaceisalready muchmore limited,whereas in a4-degreeworld, itwouldno longer bepossible to pursuevoluntaryrelocationoralternativelivelihoodstrategiesinsomeoftheislands. Itshouldbenotedthat thisviewdoesnot takeaccountofpotentialfutureinnovations in theadaptationandoptions space.Therearealsodifferencesbetweensub-regions ofMelanesia,MicronesiaandPolynesiaintheextentthatgeographicalfeatures(e.g., highermountains) enable some communities and countries to have broader option spaces than others. The figure is nevertheless useful in localising the issue of loss anddamage in theSWPacificcontext. 15.3.1 ManagingTolerableRisks It is important to appreciate that many island communities to a greater or lesser extentdependonsubsistence farmingandfishingfor their livelihoods, andendurea significant level of everyday risk for foodand livelihoods.Somecommunitieshave seasonalfoodshortagesandmalnutritioniswidespread(Toole2016). Insomeareas, suchas the“WeatherCoast”ofGuadalcanal in theSolomonIslands, livelihoodsare verymarginal with a seasonal “hungry time” (KastomGaden/Terra Circle 2005). This is tomakethepoint thateventhoughstarvation isnotan issue, foodsecurity is, and insomeareas isachronicconcern.Watersecurity isalsoan issue,especiallyon atollswhere freshwater is easilycontaminatedby the sea. Climate change, demographic change, and changing expectations, are superim- posed on top of these existing situations (Khrisnapillai 2017;Kuruppu andWillie 2015)—within the tolerable day-to-day risk and option spaces. A recent extreme event, Cyclone Pam, is used to illustrate some of these issues later in the chapter. Insurance fornaturalhazards in thePacific isvery limited,withmostpeoplehaving nocoverage.The ideaof a regional insuranceor solidarity pool to support govern- ment expenditure in disasters has been raised often. The PacificCatastropheRisk AssessmentandInsuranceInitiative(PCRAFI)wasestablishedtoprovideimproved data andunderstandingof hazards, andnowalsoprovides funds togovernments in theeventofdisaster.However, theamounts arevery small. 15.3.2 DealingwithIntolerableRisks There are already caseswhere communities find themselves impacted by intolera- ble climate related risk andwhere riskmanagement options, often only suggested as futurepossibilities, are alreadybeingdeployed. In thePacific, the extent of irre-