Page - 386 - in Loss and Damage from Climate Change - Concepts, Methods and Policy Options

386 A.Heslin UnitedStateshasmilitaryaccesstoparticularMarshalleseislandsandoceanterritory, whileMarshallese citizensmay live,work, and study in theUnited Stateswithout a visa (U.S.Department of State 2016).As of the 2011Marshall Islands census, a total of 53, 158 people lived in theMarshall Islands (Economic Policy, Planning, andStatisticsOffice2011),while22,434MarshalleselivedintheUnitedStates.The significant proportion ofMarshallese living in theUnited States occurred rapidly, with fewer than 7,000Marshallese living the U.S. in 2000, increasingmore than threefoldby2010(Hixsonetal.2012).Marshallesemigrants totheU.S.havesettled primarily inHawaii (33%asof2010),Arkansas (19.3%), andWashington (9.8%). 16.3.1 Challenges Whilemany relocate to Hawaii, nearly 2/3 of theMarshallese in the U.S. live in geographiclocationsandclimates,whichdiffermarkedlyfromtheMarshall Islands, includingeasternWashingtonstateandSpringdale,Arkansas.Withcultural signifi- cance tied to ahistoryofoceannavigation (includingoutrigger canoeing, shown in Fig. 16.2), subsistence from skilled spear-fishing, and handicrafts and local dishes made from tropical crops including banana and coconut,Marshallese face serious challengesofculturalpreservationwhenremovedfromtheir islandhomes.Particu- larly, those interviewed commented on their families’ homes and serene landscape (Fig. 16.3), aspects lacking in theU.S. context.Whilemigrants to theU.S. can still return to theMarshall Islands to visit, they are seldomable to given the price and durationof theflight,with tickets fromthemainlandU.S. costingup to$2,000and totallingover50h in transit time.Additionally, in theeventof further sea-level rise, travel to theMarshall Islandswouldbecomeinfeasible, resulting in theunavoidable loss of the significant physical locations and landscapes described by those inter- viewed.While damage to the islandswould destroymany physical locationswith residents have attachments to, migrants to theU.S. did indicate finding particular traditional foods like breadfruit and coconuts from local LatinAmerican grocers, allowing for the continued consumption of traditional foods, particularly for holi- days and celebrations. In addition,Marshallese can still send and receivepackages fairlyeasily,astheUSpostalserviceoperatesintheRMI.Thisallowsmigrantstothe U.S. to receive traditional clothingandhandicrafts evenwhile living the abroad. In theabsenceofcontinued family ties to the islands,however, thismechanismofcul- tural preservationwouldno longer bepossible, requiringproductionof these items outsideof theMarshall Islands ifmaterials areaccessible. Inadditiontogeographicdifferences,MarshalleseintheU.S.faceaverydifferent social structure than that, which exists on the remote Pacific atolls. Marshallese familiesgenerally live inextendedfamilyhouseholds, lackinglinguisticdistinctions betweenmothers and aunts, siblings and cousins. Even when families do live in separatehouses, childrenoftenmovebackand forthbetweenhouseholds, cared for by parents, aunts, uncles, and grandparents. This fluidity of family and guardian