Page - 433 - in Loss and Damage from Climate Change - Concepts, Methods and Policy Options

18 LossandDamage in theRapidlyChangingArctic 433 permafrost,whichcontributestotheslowreleaseofcarbonintheatmosphere(Schuur andAbbott 2011), resulting inglobal consequences. It isworthnoting thatnotallbiophysical impactsareuniformand that theArctic coversmanydifferent typesof landscapesandsocieties.There isashift fromtundra tocontinental climate inAlaska,CanadaandNorth-EasternRussiaandashift from continental to temperate climate inNorthAmerica: these are examples of a global decrease in cold areas and inAlaska andSiberia,which are on top facing the risk ofdesertification (Spinoni et al. 2015).OtherArctic areas, suchaswesternSiberia, are facinghydrological risksandpermafrost thawcausingfloodsandmudflowsand increasing the risks to industryandurbancentres (Zemtsovet al. 2014). There are slow-onset events, such as tundra decline, tundra shrubification, per- mafrostthaw,treelineadvance,deforestation,lossofpalsamiresinNordicArctic;the Arctic region isalso facingalbedochangesanddiminishingsea ice, soil andcoastal erosion,sea-levelrise,anddesertification.Furtherdirect impactsareextremeevents, such as storms andwildfires, floods, and landslides. It is estimated that increases in precipitation will affect snow events in Alaska and increase the likelihood of avalanches and landslides in themountainous areas (Hansen et al. 2014).All these biophysical impactscanbedisruptive towildlifeandecosystems, and theprovision ofecosystemservices,andcauseseriousdamagetopeopleandcritical infrastructure also, aswell as emergencypreparedness systemsandmonitoringsystems (Crowley 2011).Theycanalsocause impactson (traditional) foodandwater security (White et al. 2007),but also tourism(Lemelinet al. 2012).Arctic livelihoodsand lifestyles arecloselyconnectedtotheenvironment,anddependentontheprevailingconditions ofecosystemservices.Forexample, risksassociatedwith lossofsea iceanditscon- sequences on practicing traditional activities, such as seal hunting and ice fishing, are increasing and local communities have to adapt to these changes (Giles et al. 2013), and if adaptation isnotpossible, try tomoveaway. 18.3.2 Socio-economicImpacts Further reading of the literature reveals that there are studies that focus on under- standing andmapping socio-economic vulnerability of Arctic communities, soci- eties, culture and lifestyles. Among these are studies that approach vulnerability within a specific sector and focus onmodeling or providing cost estimates related to climate change impacts andadaptation.Wealso found several studies indicating health impacts drivenby climate change. For example, hydrological cycle changes areanexampleofemergentchangesthatcauselackof icefor longperiodsof timein Russia. This has health consequences because the people cannot access health ser- vices andalso the “social fabric” is beingaffected, according toAmstislavski et al. (2013).