Page - 434 - in Loss and Damage from Climate Change - Concepts, Methods and Policy Options

434 M.LandauerandS. Juhola The literature also shows evidence of socio-cultural consequences of climate change in thecaseof relocationandclimate-inducedmigration.These studies indi- catethatacrosstheArcticregions,andespeciallyinthecoastalareas,climatechange increases the vulnerability of local and indigenous communities. It has already led tooutmigration (“climigration”)and relatedcultural lossanddemographicchanges in the region. The interest in studying theArctic from the perspectives of climate justice, intra- and intergenerational issues has been growing, particularly in terms of relocations andhuman rights.Asoutmigration and relocation canhavemultiple negative consequences, the question remainswhether these actions should be con- sideredas adaptation, orwhether theyare rather ‘beyondadaptation,’ i.e. related to LossandDamagegiven thatcurrentlyoutmigrationandrelocationarekey issuesof the internationalLossandDamagedebate. 18.3.3 EconomicModelsandImpactAnalyses Economicmodels and impact studies place emphasis on estimating potential local impacts and costs (or costs and benefits) associated with climate change, mainly in the context of Alaska, although there are some Nordic studies as well. These studiesfocusonavarietyimpacts,suchascoastalerosion(Radosalvjevicetal.2015) and temperature changes (Chinowsky et al. 2010).Many of the studiesmodel the impactsoninfrastructure,forwhichthecostsofclimatechangearelikelytoincrease significantly as conditions change (Instanes 2006; Larsen et al. 2008;Hatcher and Forbes 2015). Arctic infrastructure is already tailored to specific conditions and nowmaintenance and replacement costs under any adaptation scenario is likely to increase about 10% (Chinowsky et al. 2010), so adaptation might technically be possible, but it is too expensive.Anumber of economic studies estimates potential damages either throughmodeling or by analysing historical events and its costs. It is argued that there is a continuousneed tomonitor anddevelop responses through emergencymanagement (Brunneret al. 2004). Immediate impactsandrelatedcosts due to damage on critical public infrastructure have been estimated andmodeled with an economic point of view towards losses and damages (e.g. Instanes 2006; Larsen et al. 2008; Ford andPearce 2010;Chinowsky et al. 2010;Karvetski et al. 2011;Radosavljevicet al. 2015).So, it isverysimple tounderstand that if costs are exceedingly high and financial resources not available, adaptation is not possible; theresidualrisksandimpactsremain‘beyondadaptation,’andthusbelongunderthe narrowdefinitionofLossandDamage.