Page - 517 - in Loss and Damage from Climate Change - Concepts, Methods and Policy Options

22 Technology forClimate Justice… 517 Fig.22.2 Overviewofunderlyingclimate justiceprinciplesandmeansof implementation Box22.1 Importanceof technology toreducefloodrisk Our examination focuses on flood risk, as hydro-meteorological hazards cause the largest economic, social and humanitarian climate-related losses. Between 1980 and 2013, global direct economic losses due tofloods exceeded $1 trillion (2013values), andmore than 220,000 people lost their lives (Winsemius et al. 2015). In 2016, the highnumberoffloodevents, includingriverfloodingandflashfloods,wasexceptional and accounted for 34%of overall losses, comparedwith an average of 21%over the past10years(MunichReNatCatService2017).Globally,economiclossesduetoflood events have increased, due to the expansionof population andproperty infloodplains (IPCC2012) resultingfrompoorlyplannedsocio-economicactivities.Climatechange increases the frequency and aggravates the severity ofmany of these hazards (IPCC 2014). InAsia and the Pacific, 32%of the economic losses fromnatural disasters in 1970–2013wereduetofloods(UNESCAP2015).CalculationsforBangladeshpredict, for example, an average increase of flooded area of 3% in 2030 and 13% by 2050, combinedwithan increaseof inundationdepth inmostareas thatarecurrentlyalready at risk, exposing22%moreof thepopulation (WorldBank2010). Thereareseveral frameworksdevelopedbyinternationalorganisationsandNon- governmental organizations (NGOs) to describe the transfer and diffusion of cli- mate technologies.Asone example,UNEPdeveloped a framework to identify and analyse these barriers as part of technology needs assessments (aswewill discuss in Sect. 22.4) (Boldt et al. 2012). They identified four key groups of barriers (or enabling environments). Klein et al. (2014) used four key considerations for tech- nologyasanadaptationconstraintthatarecloselyrelatedtothebarriers.Forexample, access isdirectly linked to theeconomicandfinancial conditions.Theeffectiveness