Page - 520 - in Loss and Damage from Climate Change - Concepts, Methods and Policy Options

520 M.vandenHombergandC.McQuistan directly related to the ownership and institutional arrangements around the use of technology (ororgware, aswewill introduce in thenext section). FinancialSupport isEssential The tragedy is that the poor and vulnerable are usually more exposed to natural hazards, but not in a position to invest in technology that could potentially reduce their exposure (Hallegatteet al. 2016).Similarly, at anational level, the leastdevel- oped countries will in many cases have to apply their limited funds to deal with the losses and damages incurred, rather than to invest in adaptation. International climatechangefinancingmechanismsare increasinglychargedwithaddressing this funding gap, but currently at low levels. In addition, economic valuations such as cost-benefit analysis that areused to justify expenditures inter- and intra-nationally are notwell designed to consider the poor and vulnerable in an equitableway, as, in absolute terms, theasset losswill behigher in the richer andmorewealthyareas than inpoorer areas (Hallegatte et al. 2016). This shows that developingcountries have severely lower institutional and tech- nological capacities topursueclimate-resilientdevelopmentpathways (IPCC2014) ascomparedtodevelopedcountries.Technologyfor climatejusticerequiresrethink- ingaccess,use, innovation,financeandgovernancefromtheperspectiveof thepoor andvulnerableandmakingsure there is justiceandequity in thesecomponents.The transfer anddiffusionof technologies for riskmanagement canbe assessed against the technology justice components at the global, regional, national and local level, to which we turn after describing the spectrum of technologies for dealing with climate-related risks. 22.3 Technologies forPublicandPrivateActions toAddressLossandDamage Technologyinvolveshardware,softwareandorgware(Christiansenetal.2011;Boldt etal.2012).Hardwarerefers to thetangibleaspectssuchascapitalgoodsandequip- ment and includesflood resistant cropsandnewirrigation systems.Software refers to the capacity and processes involved in the production and use of the hardware and ranges fromknow-how (e.g.manuals and skills, awareness-raising, education andtraining)andexperiencetopractices(e.g.agriculturalmanagement,cookingand behavioural practices).Adaptationmethodsandpractices thatmaynotnormallybe regardedas technologies, suchas insurance schemesor crop rotationpatterns,may also be characterised as software (UNFCCC2006). Orgware is equally important froman implementationpointofviewandrelates to theownershipand institutional arrangementsof thecommunityororganisationwhere the technologywill beused. It includes those organisations involved in the adoption and diffusion process of a newtechnology.