Page - 17 - in Radical Solutions and Open Science - An Open Approach to Boost Higher Education

18 C.M.Stracke 2.1 Introduction OpenScience is claimed as radical social innovation (David, 2004a) and as a dis- ruptivemovement forHigherEducation (Vicente-Saez&Martinez-Fuentes, 2018). However, what is Open Science and how can it be used to radically change and improve research, education and our society? This overview article provides an introduction to the history ofOpenScience followed by an analysis of the current state-of-the-art ofOpenScienceand its characteristics. 2.2 HistoryofOpenScience OpenScienceisacombinationofobjectiveandsubjectivegoals toimproveresearch and science in general. David underlines that Open Science is “a fragile cultural legacyofWesternEurope’shistory”(David,2004a,571)whenheanalysesthehistory ofOpenSciencebacktoitsappearanceduringthelatesixteenthandearlyseventeenth centuries and the court patronage system of the late Renaissance Europe (David, 1998,2004a,2007). In the17thcentury, theshift towardsOpenSciencewasvisible inpublic lifeandfirst scienceperiodicalswerepublished (Kronick,1976).Thefirst scienceassociationwasestablished: theRoyalSocietyofLondon for Improvingof NaturalKnowledge, foundedin1660withastrongfocusonopennessandincluding women indicating this shift, too (Willinsky,2005).Thebasis for this appearanceof Open Science was a change in the opportunities, needs and demands bywestern Europeanfeudalismandthefragmentedandcompetingnoblepatrons(David,1998, 2004a,2007).Theincreasingimportanceofmathematicsformanydisciplinesandthe spreadofprintingweremainfactorsfortheRenaissanceandthescientificrevolution. Scientistswerenolongerinterestedinkeepingthesecretsofthenatureinsmallcircles (like the alchemy continued to do) but to publish their scientific news:According to the analysis ofDavid (1998, 2004a, 2007), the “common agency contracting in substitutes”(David2004a,582)bythenoblepatronsasthepoliticalauthoritiesledto the competition among the scientists. Innovations in technologies remainedhidden toobtaineconomicalormilitaryadvantagesso thatonlynewscientificresultscould be published and presented. Noble patrons engaged scientists to gain reputation and scientists were interested to present their results in public to achieve better contracts asmost of themcouldnot live fromone single contract. That constituted also themajor progress that fragmentedWesternEurope could gain in comparison withbiggermonolithic politic systems suchas theHeavenlyEmpireofChinawith similar conditions but failing to introduce this successful concept ofOpenScience (David,1998,2004a,2007). Science, in general, was evolving and increasing, also in the number of disci- plines leading to specialized research, scientific communities and theories in the twentiethcentury.Howchanges inscienceandscientific theoriesare takingplace is undercontroversialdebatewiththreemainrepresentatives:Popper(1959)believesin