Page - 19 - in Radical Solutions and Open Science - An Open Approach to Boost Higher Education

20 C.M.Stracke Statement, 2003). Furthermore, CreativeCommonswere established as an associ- ation todevelopglobal open licenses for different purposes.Currently, six licenses aredefinedbasedupon four conditions: 1.Attribution (“by”), 2.ShareAlike (“sa”), 3.NonCommercial (“nc”) and4.NoDerivates (“nd”). AmorenarrowunderstandingofOpenScience reallocates itsorigin in theemer- genceoftheterm“Science2.0”duringthefirstyearsofthiscentury,morepreciselyin thelater2000s(Mirowski,2018).Inthisperspective,OpenScienceisare-brandingof Science2.0byTheNewYorkTimes (Lin,2012)andtheBritishRoyalSociety (2012) in theyear2012.Asaconsequence, therewas theappearanceofmanypopularpub- lications,white papers andpolicy documents, aswell as of several institutions and initiatives promotingOpenScience,mainly inNorthernAmerica including a tele- vision series (“TheCrowdand theCloud”, broadcasted by the channel PBS in the year 2017 and fundedby theAmericanNational ScienceFoundation) dedicated to the“OpenSciencePrice” (Mirowski, 2018). 2.3 CurrentState-of-the-ArtofOpenScience Thissectionwillprovideanoverviewofthecurrentstate-of-the-artofOpenScience. TheDigitalAgefostersnewwaysofcommunicationandknowledgesharingthatare changingsocialprocessesandsocietiesincludingsciencedisciplinesandinstitutions (Peters&Roberts, 2012;Stracke,2018a,b,2017a,b, c). OpenScience is considered as aparadigmchange that is challenging traditional research to improve accuracy, trust and transparency through openness standards facilitating replications (Makel&Plucker,2017). It leads toachangeofbehaviours in thepublications, aswell as in the research itself,whatVazire (2018)considersas acredibility revolution. 2.3.1 DefinitionofOpenScience OpenScienceisabroadfieldwithmanydivergentperspectivesfromdifferentstake- holdersandthus,severaldefinitionsofOpenScienceexist(Vicente-Saez&Martinez- Fuentes, 2018). Several stakeholder groups are not aware of this situation and the lack of a common understanding and of a formal definition is identified (Arabito &Pitrelli, 2015;EuropeanCommission,2015;Kraker,Leony,Reinhardt&Beham, 2011;OECD,2015).ManymovementsofOpenScienceappearedinthelastdecades and can be differentiated in several ways (Borgman, 2007). Fecher and Friesike (2014) tried to distinguishfive schools of thoughts (democratic, pragmatic, infras- tructure, public andmeasurement) but these schools areoverlapping andcannot be differentiatedclearly.Thus, I agreewith thesummarybyFecherandFriesike: “The