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271Privacy, Ethics, and Contact-Tracing Apps individuals have not been tested due to lack of capacity.15 The app being developed for the U.K. will use user-reported symptoms to determine likelihood of infection.16 An AI-enabled assessment can then trigger contact notification functions. To continue to develop and enhance the AI, and to use the data collected for other AI analytics related to understanding or modelling the disease, user-contributed data could be treated differently, with users being asked to consent to the inclusion of their de-identified self-reporting data in a central database. An app under development in Canada would also use AI and machine learning to supplement low rates of testing in order to develop targeted risk profiles for individuals.17 With all AI-enabled apps, the additional data collected would have research applications that go beyond contact tracing. Uptake and Use Contact-tracing apps are not a magic bullet. In fact, many depend upon considerable uptake and use by the public before they can have mean- ingful impact. An Oxford University study of the U.K. app determined that 56% uptake was required.18 The Australian government assessed the necessary uptake rate for their app at 40%.19 The more privacy- protective Bluetooth-only apps require greater rates of uptake since these apps record only proximity with other app users. Apps that use GPS or a combination of GPS and Bluetooth can provide data useful 15. Tonda MacCharles, “Canada Must Triple its COVID-19 Testing Before Loosening Restrictions, Experts Say”, Toronto Star (23 April 2020), online: <www.thestar. com/politics/federal/2020/04/22/canada-must-triple-its-covid-19-testing-before- loosening-restrictions-experts-say.html>. 16. Hasan Chowdhury, Matthew Field & Margi Murphy, “NHS Contact Tracing App: How Does it Work and When Can You Download It?”, The  Telegraph (10 May 2020), online: <www.telegraph.co.uk/technology/2020/05/10/nhs-contact- tracing-app-download/>. 17. Martin Patriquin, “Montreal Computer Scientists Expect to Launch Contact- Tracing App in Less than a Week”, The  Logic (9 April 2020), online: <thelogic. co/news/montreal-computer-scientists-expect-to-launch-contact-tracing-app-in- less-than-a-week/>. 18. Robert Hinch et al, “Effective Configurations of a Digital Contact Tracing App: A report to NHSX” (16 April 2020), online (pdf): University  of  Oxford <cdn.thecon- versation.com/static_files/files/1009/Report_-_Effective_App_Configurations. pdf?1587531217>. 19. Asha Barbaschow, “Morrison Says Using COVID-19 Tracing App a Matter of ‘National Service’” (17 April 2020), online: ZDNet <www.zdnet.com/article/ morrison-says-using-covid-19-tracing-app-a-matter-of-national-service/>.