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not to grant him the same term twice over in his premisses, since we know
that a syllogism cannot be drawn without a middle term, and that term which
is stated more than once is the middle. How we ought to watch the middle in
reference to each conclusion, is evident from our knowing what kind of thesis
is proved in each figure. This will not escape us since we know how we are
maintaining the argument.
That which we urge men to beware of in their admissions, they ought in
attack to try to conceal. This will be possible first, if, instead of drawing the
conclusions of preliminary syllogisms, they take the necessary premisses and
leave the conclusions in the dark; secondly if instead of inviting assent to
propositions which are closely connected they take as far as possible those
that are not connected by middle terms. For example suppose that A is to be
inferred to be true of F, B, C, D, and E being middle terms. One ought then to
ask whether A belongs to B, and next whether D belongs to E, instead of
asking whether B belongs to C; after that he may ask whether B belongs to C,
and so on. If the syllogism is drawn through one middle term, he ought to
begin with that: in this way he will most likely deceive his opponent.
20
Since we know when a syllogism can be formed and how its terms must be
related, it is clear when refutation will be possible and when impossible. A
refutation is possible whether everything is conceded, or the answers alternate
(one, I mean, being affirmative, the other negative). For as has been shown a
syllogism is possible whether the terms are related in affirmative propositions
or one proposition is affirmative, the other negative: consequently, if what is
laid down is contrary to the conclusion, a refutation must take place: for a
refutation is a syllogism which establishes the contradictory. But if nothing is
conceded, a refutation is impossible: for no syllogism is possible (as we saw)
when all the terms are negative: therefore no refutation is possible. For if a
refutation were possible, a syllogism must be possible; although if a syllogism
is possible it does not follow that a refutation is possible. Similarly refutation
is not possible if nothing is conceded universally: since the fields of refutation
and syllogism are defined in the same way.
21
It sometimes happens that just as we are deceived in the arrangement of the
terms, so error may arise in our thought about them, e.g. if it is possible that
the same predicate should belong to more than one subject immediately, but
although knowing the one, a man may forget the other and think the opposite
139
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Buch The Complete Aristotle"
The Complete Aristotle
- Titel
- The Complete Aristotle
- Autor
- Aristotle
- Datum
- ~322 B.C.
- Sprache
- englisch
- Lizenz
- PD
- Abmessungen
- 21.0 x 29.7 cm
- Seiten
- 2328
- Schlagwörter
- Philosophy, Antique, Philosophie, Antike, Dialogues, Metaphysik, Metaphysics, Ideologie, Ideology, Englisch
- Kategorien
- Geisteswissenschaften
- International
Inhaltsverzeichnis
- Part 1; Logic (Organon) 3
- Categories 4
- On Interpretation 34
- Prior Analytics, Book I 56
- Prior Analytics, Book II 113
- Posterior Analytics, Book I 149
- Posterior Analytics, Book II 193
- Topics, Book I 218
- Topics, Book II 221
- Topics, Book III 237
- Topics, Book IV 248
- Topics, Book V 266
- Topics, Book VI 291
- Topics, Book VII 317
- Topics, Book VIII 326
- On Sophistical Refutations 348
- Part 2; Universal Physics 396
- Physics, Book I 397
- Physics, Book II 415
- Physics, Book III 432
- Physics, Book IV 449
- Physics, Book V 481
- Physics, Book VI 496
- Physics, Book VII 519
- Physics, Book VIII 533
- On the Heavens, Book I 570
- On the Heavens, Book II 599
- On the Heavens, Book III 624
- On the Heavens, Book IV 640
- On Generation and Corruption, Book I 651
- On Generation and Corruption, Book II 685
- Meteorology, Book I 707
- Meteorology, Book II 733
- Meteorology, Book III 760
- Meteorology, Book IV 773
- Part 3; Human Physics 795
- On the Soul, Book I 796
- On the Soul, Book II 815
- On the Soul, Book III 840
- On Sense and the Sensible 861
- On Memory and Reminiscence 889
- On Sleep and Sleeplessness 899
- On Dreams 909
- On Prophesying by Dreams 918
- On Longevity and the Shortness of Life 923
- On Youth, Old Age, Life and Death, and Respiration 929
- Part 4; Animal Physics 952
- The History of Animals, Book I 953
- The History of Animals, Book II translated 977
- The History of Animals, Book III 1000
- The History of Animals, Book IV 1029
- The History of Animals, Book V 1056
- The History of Animals, Book VI 1094
- The History of Animals, Book VII 1135
- The History of Animals, Book VIII 1150
- The History of Animals, Book IX 1186
- On the Parts of Animals, Book I 1234
- On the Parts of Animals, Book II 1249
- On the Parts of Animals, Book III 1281
- On the Parts of Animals, Book IV 1311
- On the Motion of Animals 1351
- On the Gait of Animals 1363
- On the Generation of Animals, Book I 1381
- On the Generation of Animals, Book II 1412
- On the Generation of Animals, Book III 1444
- On the Generation of Animals, Book IV 1469
- On the Generation of Animals, Book V 1496
- Part 5; Metaphysics 1516
- Part 6; Ethics and Politics 1748
- Nicomachean Ethics, Book I 1749
- Nicomachean Ethics, Book II 1766
- Nicomachean Ethics, Book III 1779
- Nicomachean Ethics, Book IV 1799
- Nicomachean Ethics, Book V 1817
- Nicomachean Ethics, Book VI 1836
- Nicomachean Ethics, Book VII 1851
- Nicomachean Ethics, Book VIII 1872
- Nicomachean Ethics, Book IX 1890
- Nicomachean Ethics, Book X 1907
- Politics, Book I 1925
- Politics, Book II 1943
- Politics, Book III 1970
- Politics, Book IV 1997
- Politics, Book V 2023
- Politics, Book VI 2053
- Politics, Book VII 2065
- Politics, Book VIII 2091
- The Athenian Constitution 2102
- Part 7; Aesthetic Writings 2156