Page - 16 - in Cyborg Mind - What Brain–Computer and Mind–Cyberspace Interfaces Mean for Cyberneuroethics

16 • Cyborg Mind Ethics Ethics is the study of the values of human conduct and of the rules and prin- ciples that govern them. It seeks to distinguish what is considered to be good as well as ways of implementing these rules. Ethical considerations also seek to investigate the proportionality between the advantages and risks of a cer- tain procedure, while examining whether it is possible to find an acceptable balance between the two. Sometimes, of course, it is difficult to define exactly what is meant by ‘ethics’ and even experts disagree. Generally, however, it refers to the study of standards of behaviour governed by what is agreed to be acceptable or correct. In this way, ethics examines and investigates moral choices, since morality refers more specifically to actual decisions and actions. Ethical discussions have always been difficult because of the multiple ethi- cal frameworks that exist, many of which argue from very different precepts and worldviews. In addition, few people currently adopt just one worldview while ruling out all other ways of thinking. This means that when facing a moral dilemma, most people usually pick and mix from the available options. Because of this, when a committee discusses an ethical dilemma, the issue often grows bigger with every additional participant. Each person is liable to have his or her own idea about which ethical approaches should be used at a given time and reaching a consensus can be well-nigh impossible. But if one is able to understand the principles underlying each mode of thinking, it is feasible to look at the outcome and ask questions about what led each person to that conclusion. This then strengthens the level of intellectual debate and, in theory at least, supports the development of more robust decisions. In this regard, much of the so-called ethical debate occurring in modern media seems to operate at a level of descriptive ethics where stories are presented about the way in which people live and the choices they make. Through this, it is possible to gain a sense of where people place personal moral boundaries. However, the danger with this form of ethical debate is that it may imply a level of moral authority without actually explaining or even discerning the basis on which individual judgements are made. In order to develop a better understanding, it is useful to examine the way people live, the choices they believe should be made and the values or world- views they hold dear. From this perspective, it is possible to derive a sense of what they believe should normally take place. As a result, such ‘normative ethics’ can have a powerful effect on establishing moral frameworks within a society. Like many disciplines, ethical concepts and principles also become more complex the more they are examined, which then introduces the concept of ‘meta-ethics’. This questions the foundational thinking that is brought to any This open access edition has been made available under a CC-BY-NC-ND 4.0 license thanks to the support of Knowledge Unlatched. Not for resale.